-mmmmmmmiiiiiiilm 


^iyyy'-^^yiyi>^/yi^<'/f'y'i(>y.'^ 


/ 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 


Form  L  1 


CooA 


^ 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

A.. 


s  ^  S  iS^} 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/compositionrhetoOOwill 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


BY  PRACTICE, 


WITH   EXERCISES,  ADAPTED   FOR   USE   IN   HIGH 
SCHOOLS   AND   COLLEGES. 


^     BY 
WILLIAM    WILLIAMS,    B.A., 

Editor  of  Goldsmith's  "Deserted  Village,"  Cowper's  "Task,"  etc. 

STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 


Revised  and  Enlarged. 


BOSTON,   U.S.A.: 

D.   C.    HEATH   &  CO.,   PUBLISHERS, 

1894. 


Copyright,  1890, 
By  D.   C.  HEATH  &  CO. 


Nortoonti  ^^kss  : 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith, 

Boston,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


r/ 


PREFACE. 


This  is,  first  of  all,  a  practical  book ;  not  that  it  excludes  theory, 
but  that  it  gives  prominence  to  practice.  If  this  were  not  the 
case,  it  need  not  have  been  written.  There  are  already  books 
enough  that  deal  ably  with  the  theoretical  part  of  the  subject,  but 
there  are  none  that  combine  with  theory  a  sufficient  amount  of 
practice.  As  composition  is  both  a  science  and  an  art,  no  system 
of  teaching  it  can  be  successful  that  does  not  recognize  both  of 
these  departments.  Young  people  do  not  acquire  facihty  and  cor- 
rectness of  expression  merely  by  memorizing  rules  or  by  poring 
over  methods  of  sentential  structure.  Repeated  and  varied  expe- 
rience in  the  making  of  sentences  is  necessary  as  well.  Still,  the 
learning  of  principles  is  not  to  be  neglected ;  for,  although  it  is 
not  the  whole,  it  is  an  essential  part.  How,  then,  can  these  two 
departments  of  the  subject  be  most  advantageously  presented  to 
the  pupil?  Every  discerning  teacher  must  have  found  that  little 
theory  and  much  practice  is  by  far  the  most  effective  method  of 
teaching  composition.  On  this  maxim  this  book  is  based ;  and 
its  purpose  is  to  furnish  the  teacher  with  the  means  of  carrying 
into  effect  the  plan  here  indicated.  It  proceeds  on  the  simple 
method  of  laying  down  a  few  principles  at  a  time,  and  then  illus- 
trating them  with  such  number  and  variety  of  exercises  that  the 
pupil  may  fully  master  the  practical  application  of  these  principles, 
and  thereby  learn  not  only  to  write,  but  to  write  correctly. 

January  21,  1891. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introductory i 

The  Sentence i 

Grammatical  Classification        ........  i 

Rhetorical  Classification ii 

Capitalization 20 

Punctuation 23 

Style 38 

Diction 39 

Purity,  Rhetorical     .........  39 

"       Grammatical          ........  45 

Propriety 63 

Precision  ...........  68 

Formation  of  Sentences  .........  81 

Clearness.         .         .         ........  81 

Strength 106 

Unity 127 

Elegance  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         -133 

Construction  of  Paragraphs      ........  146 

Variety  of  Expression 160 

Transposition  of  Prose     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .160 

"              "   Poetry 184 

Figures  of  Speech 206 

Qualities  of  Style 234 

Perspicuity        ...........  234 

Picturesqueness         .  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         -237 

Force <, 245 

V 


VI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Pathos 247 

The  Ludicrous          ..........  253 

The  Esthetic 255 

Letters 263 

The  Plan 270 

A  Paragraph 273 

A  Theme 278 

Kinds  of  Discourse 284 

Narration 284 

Description 290 

Exposition        ......'.•••  295 

Argumentation          ........••  298 

Persuasion        ........•••  3°° 

Poetry 3°4 

Versification 311 

Correcting  Compositions 322 

Proof-Reading  and  Marking     ........  323 


Composition  and  Rhetoric 

BY   PRACTICE. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

The  art  of  finding  thoughts  and  of  giving  them  suitable  expres- 
sion is  Composition. 

The  science  that  discusses  the  principles  which  guide  us  in 
composition  is  Rhetoric. 

In  practice  Composition  and  Rhetoric  are  inseparably  connected. 

Composition  has  two  distinct  parts  :  the  one  deals  with  thoughts, 
the  other  with  forms  of  expression.  The  former  is  usually  called 
Invention;  the  latter,  Style. 

LESSON    I. 

THE   SENTENCE.  — GRAMMATICAL   CLASSIFICATION. 

Kinds  of  Sentences.  —  Sentences  are  classified,  according  to 
dieir  form,  into  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound. 

Simple  Sentences. 

The  Simple  Sentence.  — The  essential  parts  of  the  simple 
sentence  are  the  subject  and  predicate.  In  the  most  elementary 
form  neither  of  these  has  any  qualification  ;  as,  "  Time  flies." 


2  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Qualifiers.  — The  subject  and  predicate  may  each  have  a  vast 
variety  of  modifications. 

I.   The  subject  is  always  a  substantive  —  that  is,  a  noun,  or 

pronoun,  or  an  adjective,  adverb,  infinitive,  or  other 

part  of  speech  —  used  as  a  noun. 

1.  The  subject,  when  a  noun  or  pronoun,  may  be  modified 

by:- 
(i)  An  adjective  or  an  adjective  phrase,  used  either  attri- 
butively or  appositively  ;  as,  — 

a.  T\it,  good  QAXxzo-XMi,  fearing  a  revolt,  fled. 

b.  The  days  of  mail's  Hfe  are  few. 

c.  His  father'' s  estate  was  sold. 

d.  The  husband,  with  his  zuife  and  children,  has 

departed. 

e.  That  new  world,  blessed  with  plenty,  was  my  hope. 

f.  The  desire  to  please  was  too  strong. 

(2)  A  noun  in  apposition;  as,  "There,  too,  sat  she,  the 
beautiful  mother  of  a  beautiful  race,  the  Saint 
Cecilia.^'' 

2.  When  the  subject  is  a  verbal,  simple,  or  phrasal,  it  may 

have  the  modifiers  of  a  verb,  as  well  as  some  of 
those  of  a  substantive  ;  as, — 

a.  To  buy  {or  buying)  and  sell  {or  selling)  goods  for 

cash  is  a  safe  business.  . 

b.  To  be  sad  and  gloomy  all  through  life  argues  a  mis- 

conception of  its  object. 

c.  His  running  violently  down  the  street  had  a  fatal  result. 

d.  Being  kept  here  week  after  week  is  a  great  annoyance. 

3.  When  the  subject  is  a  word  commonly  used  as  an  adjec- 

tive or  as  an  adverb,  it  may  have  the  modifiers  of  those 
parts  of  speech,  as  well  as  some  of  the  modifiers  of 
nouns ;  as,  "  The  very  good  of  all  ages  are  often  ridi- 
culed." "  This  eternal  now  rang  in  his  ears." 
The  subject  may  consist  of  two  or  more  nouns  or  pronouns,  each 
with  modifiers. 


THE    SENTENCE.  3 

II.   The  predicate  may  consist  of:  — 

1.  A  single  word. 

The  simple  verb  of  the  predicate  may  be  modified 
by:- 

a.  An  adverb  or  adverbial  phrase  ;    as,  "  He  turned 

quickly  to  the  right.'" 

b.  An  indirect  or  adverbial  objective  ;  as,  "  I  gave  him 

money  "  ;  "  He  stayed  a  day.'' 

c.  An  absolute  word  or  phrase  ;  as,  "  The  tvofk  being 

finished,  we  repaired  to  our  homes." 

d.  An  infinitive ;   as,   "  He   left  the  hall  to  obey  his 

master's  commands." 

2.  A  verb  and  its  object ;  as,  "  They  built  a  house.'' 

The  object  may  be:  (i)  a  noun  or  its  equivalent; 
(2)  an  infinitive  abbreviation  for  a  noun  clause  ;  as,  "  He 
felt  his  face  flush." 

3.  A  copula  and  its  complement ;  as,  "  He  tvas  rich." 

4.  An  incomplete  verb  and  its  complement ;  as,  "  The  time 

seems  bug"  ;  "The  irtQ  groivs  taller." 
The  complement  of  3  and  4  may  be  :  — 

a.  A  substantival ;  as,  "  That  is  the  man  "  ;  "  This  is 

he";   "My  duty  is  to  die"  ;  "Seeing  is  believ- 
ing." 

b.  An  adjectival ;  as,  "  They  are  young"  ;  "  He  stands 

firm" ;    "The    building   is   of  wood"  \    "They 
seem  exhausted." 

c.  An  adverbial ;  as,  "  The  hat  is  here  "  ;  "  The  work 

is  all-of-a-piece  "  ;  "  He  is  here  to  stay  "  ;  "The 
letter  is  to  be  written." 

5.  A  verb  completed  by  a  factitive  noun  or  adjective;  as, 

"They  made  him  king";  "He  was  made  king"; 
"The  pain  drove  him  wild." 
All  the  objects  or  complements  of  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  whether  sub- 
stantival, adjectival,  or  adverbial,  are  themselves  subject  to  modifi- 
cation, each  according  to  its  nature. 


4  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Position. — The  various  modifiers  may  sometimes  occupy  dif- 
ferent positions  in  a  sentence.  It  is,  however,  a  good  general  rule 
that  words  and  phrases  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
words  they  qualify. 

EXERCISE    I. 

Simple  Sentences. 

1.  Enlarge  the  subjects  and  the  predicates  of  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing simple  sentences  in  as  many  ways  as  you  can  :  — 

(i)  (2)  (3) 

(a)   Boys  play.  Girls  sew.  Man  sees. 

{/?)    Horses  travel.  Farmers  plough.  Birds  fly. 

(<:)    Mind  is.  Thought  roams.  Money  paves. 

2.  Combine  each  of  the  following  groups  of  statements  into  a 
simple  sentence  :  — 

a.  I  pursued  my  walk.  I  pursued  it  to  a  door.  The  door  was 
arched.     It  opened.     It  opened  to  the  interior  of  the  abbey. 

/;.  She  was  a  maiden.  She  was  born  in  the  country.  She  was 
shy.  She  was  simple.  She  was  sweet.  She  was  different  from 
those  reared  in  towns.    They  are  boisterous.     They  are  romping. 

c.  His  head  was  small.  It  was  flat.  It  was  flat  on  top.  His 
ears  were  huge.  His  eyes  were  large.  They  were  green.  They 
were  glassy. 

d.  Night  came.  She  came  to  receive  their  form.  She  came 
with  her  mantle.  It  was  bespangled.  It  was  bespangled  with 
stars. 

3.  Analyze  the  following  into  simple  sentences  :  — 

a.  An  old,  thick-set  peasant,  in  rags,  is  driving  his  plough  in 
the  field. 

^.  She  seemed  to  have  survived  all  love,  aU  friendship,  all 
society. 

c.  The  faltering  voice  of  the  poor  old  woman  rose  to  heaven 
far  before  the  responses  of  the  clerk,  the  swell  of  the  organ,  or  the 
chanting  of  the  choir. 


SIMPLE    SENTENCES.  5 

d.  There  lived  Baron  Landshort,  the  oracle  of  his  table,  the 
absolute  monarch  of  his  little  territory,  and  happy  above  all  things 
in  the  possession  of  superior  wisdom. 

e.  His  head  was  covered  with  a  brown  wig,  faded  and  shrunk 
from  time  and  use,  a  fringe  of  thin  grizzled  hair  showing  below  il 
at  the  sides,  and  corresponding  to  his  ragged  whiskers. 

4.  Write  a  simple  sentence  having  for  subject  (i)  a  noun  (or 
an  adjective,  or  adverb  used  as  a  noun),  (2)  a  pronoun,  (3)  a 
verbal  (infinitive  or  gerund),  simple  or  phrasal. 

5.  Expand  by  one  or  more  modifiers  each  of  the  subjects  of  the 
sentences  required  by  the  preceding  question. 

6.  Write  a  number  of  simple  sentences  having  each  a  complete 
verb  for  predicate. 

7.  Enlarge  the  predicate  of  each  of  the  sentences  of  the  pre- 
ceding question  by  an  adverb,  an  adverbial  phrase,  an  indirect  or 
adverbial  object,  or  by  a  nominative  absolute. 

8.  Write  sentences  with  nouns  or  pronouns  for  subjects,  then 
expand  the  subject  of  each  by  an  adjective,  adjective  pronoun, 
numeral  adjective,  an  adjectival  case  or  phrase,  a  verbal  adjective, 
or  a  participial  phrase. 

9.  Write  a  simple  sentence  with  a  copula  completed  by  (i)  an 
adjective  of  each  of  the  various  classes,  (2)  by  a  substantival  of 
each  kind,  (3)  by  each  of  the  different  kinds  of  adverbial  com- 
plements. 

10.  Write  simple  sentences  whose  predicates  are  incomplete 
verbs,  completed  as  in  the  last  question. 

11.  Expand  each  of  the  complements  of  the  predicates  required 
in  the  last  question  by  one  or  more  modifiers. 


O  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON   11. 

COMPLEX   SENTENCES. 

A  complex  sentence  consists  of  a  principal  statement  with 
which  is  combined  one  or  more  subordinate  statements.  It  is  a 
simple  sentence  in  which  the  modifying  words  or  phrases  are 
developed  into  clauses. 

The  modifying  clauses  are  of  three  kinds:  (i)  substantive, 
(2)  adjectival,  (3)  adverbial. 

1.  A  substantive  clause  has  the  value  of  a  noun  and  therefore 
may  be  :  — 

a.  The  subject  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  That  one  should  be  shut  out 

frotn  ail  society,  is  unendurable." 

b.  The  object  of  a  verb  ;  as,  "  I  know  not  w/iat  can  be  done.'' 

c.  The  object  of  a  preposition ;  as,  "  I  will  give  the  estate  to 

wJioever  may  deserve  it''' 

d.  The  complement  of  a  verb  ;  as,  "The  objection  is,  tiiat people 

a}-e  not  disposed  to  lay  this  truth  to  heart." 

e.  An  appositive  modifier;  as,  "Many  people  are  of  opinion 

that  wliatever  is,  is  best." 

f.  In  the  adverbial  objective  relation  ;  as,  "  We  investigate  till 

we  are  positive  only  that  icje  a7'e  positive  of  nothing." 
A  substantive  clause  may  be  inserted  directly,  or  introduced  by 
a  word  of  adverbial  or  conjunctive  power.     See  above. 

2.  An  adjective  clause  has  the  value  of  an  attributive  or  ap- 
positive adjective  ;  hence  it  is  always  attached  to  a  substantive. 

An  adjective  clause  may  be  attached  to  the  words  it  modifies 
by:  — 

(i)   A  relative  pronoun;  as,  "Fortunate  is  he  zuho   finds  so 
merciful  a  judge." 

(2)  A  relative  adverb ;  as,  "  It  was  the  day  when  we  last  met." 

(3)  A  word  having  the  value  of  a  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  "  Such 

books  as  I  have  " ;  "  Not  a  man  but  thinks  so." 


COMPLEX    SENTENCES.  7 

The  connecting  word  may  be  omitted ;  as,  "  They  roused  me 
at  the  hour  {a i  which)  I  desired  to  be  called." 

The  antecedent  and  the  connecting  relative  may  be  contained 
in  the  same  word ;  as,  "  The  actual  fact  differed  materially  from 
7ahat  was  first  reported." 

3.  An  adverbial  clause  has  the  value  of  an  adverb  and,  con- 
sequently, qualifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

An  adverbial  clause  may  be  connected  with  the  word  it  modifies 
by:- 

( 1 )  A  subordinate  conjunction  of  time,  place,  cause,  manner,  etc. 

Thus  :  "  As  he  wended  his  way  back,  every  sound  flut- 
tered his  imagination  "  ;  "  Water  goes  on  contracting  //// 
it  reaches  39°  Fahrenheit  " ;  "  War  is  an  evil  because  it 
produces  human  misery." 

(2)  By  words  ordinarily  used  as  relative  pronouns.    Thus:  "The 

man  had  no  covering  on  his  head  which  (though  it)  was 
defended  by  his  own  thick  hair." 
Each  subordinate  clause  may  be  modified  as  if  it  were  a  princi- 
pal clause. 

By  the  omission  of  easily  supplied  words  a  complex  sentence  is 
often  made  to  resemble  a  simple  sentence;  as,  ''The  supper  was 
twice  as  good  as  the  dinner  "  (was  good). 

EXERCISE   II. 

Complex  Sentences. 

I.  Analyze  the  following  complex  sentences  into  simple  sen- 
tences :  — 

a.  We  know  that  this  is  sometimes  a  hard  lesson. 

b.  I  shall  only  add  that  when  I  awoke  I  was  sorry  because  I 
found  that  my  golden  scales  had  vanished. 

c.  Though  the  copying  of  this  piece  of  music  was  strictly  for- 
bidden, yet  Mozart,  who  was  then  but  fourteen  years  old,  deter- 
mined that  he  would  make  himself  master  of  it. 

d.  It  is  probable  that  when  this  work  was  begun,  which  must 


O  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

have  been  many  hundred  years  ago,  this  people  had  some  rehgion  ; 
for  they  give  it  the  name  of  a  temple,  and  they  have  a  tradition 
that  it  was  designed  for  men  to  pay  their  devotions  in. 

2.  Combine  the  following  simple  sentences  into  complex  sen- 
tences :  — 

a.  The  blossom  perishes.  The  infant  perished  similarly.  The 
recollection  causes  a  pang.  It  causes  a  pang  to  the  mother.  Still 
she  would  not  forget  it. 

b.  Shakespeare  is  buried.  He  is  buried  in  the  church.  He  is 
buried  in  its  chancel.  It  is  a  large  pile.  It  is  a  venerable  pile. 
It  is  mouldering  with  age.     It  is  richly  ornamented. 

c.  The  "  Vicar  of  Wakefield  "  is  captivating.  The  bookseller 
did  not  appreciate  it.  He  kept  it  by  him  two  years.  He  then 
published  it.  It  has  since  attained  popularity.  It  has  attained 
this  in  several  languages.     It  retains  that  popularity. 

3.  Compose  a  complex  sentence  in  which  the  predicate  (i)  is 
modified  by  an  adverbial  clause  of  {a)  time,  {U)  place,  (<r)  degree, 
{d)  manner,  {/)  cause;   (2)  is  completed  by  a  noun  clause. 

4.  Compose  a  complex  sentence  in  which  a  noun  clause  (i)  is 
subject,  (2)  is  an  appositive  modifier,  (3)  is  the  object  of  a  prep- 
osition, (4)  completes  the  predicate,  (5)  forms  the  object  of  the 
predicate  verb,  (6)  is  in  the  objective  adverbial  relation. 

5.  Compose  a  complex  sentence  in  which  the  subject  is  limited 
by  an  adjective  clause  introduced  (i)  by  a  relative  pronoun,  (2)  by 
a  relative  adverb,  (3)  by  as,  (4)  by  hut. 

6.  Compose  a  complex  sentence  in  which  the  object  is  modified 
as  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence  required  in  5. 

7.  Compose  a  complex  sentence  in  which  the  adverbial  clause 
is  introduced  (i)  by  a  subordinate  conjunction  {a)  of  time,  {b)  of 
place,  {c)  of  cause,  (<^)  of  manner;   (2)  by  {a)  who;  {b)  which. 


COMPOUND    SENTENCES.  9 

LESSON    III. 

COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 

A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  independent 
sentences. 

1.  The  relation  existing  between  the  clauses  of  compound  sen- 
tences is  usually  expressed  by  co-ordinate  conjunctions.    Thus  :  — 

a.    In  cumulative,  by  and^  a/so,  Ukeivise,  moreover,  etc. 

I?.    In  adversative,  by  hi/f,  yet,  or,  nor,  nevertheless,  otherwise,  etc. 

c.    In  illative,  by  therefore,  hence,  for,  so,  thus,  then,  etc. 

2.  Sometimes  the  relation  between  the  parts  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence is  disguised  by  the  connective,  so  that  the  sentence  appears 
to  be  complex  ;  as, "  He  had  a  ready  command  over  his  countenance, 
which  (and  ...  it)  he  could  contract  at  pleasure  into  solemnity." 

3.  Occasionally  the  connective  is  omitted  ;  as,  "  Goldsmith  tells 
you  shortly  all  you  want  to  know ;  Robertson  detains  you  a  great 
deal  too  long." 

4.  The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  may  be  all  simple  ;  one 
or  all  of  them  may  be  complex,  or  even  compound.  When  one  or 
both  are  complex,  the  whole  sentence  is  called  Compound  Complex. 

5.  One  of  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence  maybe  abbre- 
viated by  the  omission  of  words  easily  supplied  ;  as,  "  Now  inspira- 
tion seemed  to  be  at  an  end,  and  the  poetic  fire  extinguished." 

6.  A  compound  sentence  may  be  abbreviated  by  the  use  of  a 
compound  subject  or  of  a  compound  predicate  or  of  both  ;  as, "  Men 
and  money  are  asked  for  (and  obtained) "  ;  "  He  reads  and  writes." 
One  so  abbreviated  is  called  a  Contracted  Compound  Sentence. 

EXERCISE   III. 

Compound  Sentences. 

I.  Complete  the  following  sentences  by  the  addition  of  another 
clause  :  — 

a.   Time  passes  away  and  ... 


10  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

b.  The  sun  is  setting  and  .  .   . 

c.  He  rode,  not  a  mule,  but  .  .  . 

d.  Our  captives  are  as  fierce  as  Odin,  yet  .  .  . 

e.  He  has  transgressed  the  law,  therefore  .  .  , 
/.  Take  the  path  to  the  left,  for  .  .  . 

g.    In  his  girdle  he  wore  a  long  dagger,  which  .  .  , 

//.    His  shield  was  covered  with  a  scarlet  cloth,  which  .  .  . 

2.  Combine  the  following  simple  sentences  into  compound  sen- 
tences :  — 

a.  A  number  of  horsemen  were  seen.  They  were  slowly  ad- 
vancing. They  nearly  reached  the  foot  of  the  hill.  They  then 
struck  off.     They  struck  off  in  a  different  direction. 

b.  Animal  attachment  must  be  refreshed.  It  must  be  refreshed 
continually.  It  must  be  kept  alive.  It  must  be  kept  alive  by  the 
presence  of  its  object.  True  affection  is  seated  in  the  soul.  It 
can  live  on  long  remembrance. 

c.  He  was  a  great  reader.  He  read  old  legends.  He  read 
romances.  He  could  not  believe  them.  He  regretted  this.  Super- 
stitious persons  live  in  a  kind  of  fairyland.    He  desired  that  pleasure. 

3.  Compose  a  compound  sentence  with  simple  subjects  and 
simple  predicates  about  each  of  the  following :  Time,  money, 
sleep,  base-ball,  horses,  railroads,  steam-boats. 

4.  Introduce  as  many  modifiers  as  you  can  into  each  of  the 
sentences  required  in  3. 

5.  Compose  other  sentences  on  the  topics  named  in  3,  in  which 
the  members  are  (i)  simple,  (2)  complex,  (3)  compound. 

6.  Write  out  fully  the  following  abbreviated  compound  sen- 
tences :  — 

a.  Measures  should  be  supported,  not  men. 

b.  At  every  turn  I  met  with  some  illustrious  name,  or  the  cog- 
nizance of  some  powerful  house. 

c.  Now  one  of  these  elements  appears  most  prominent,  now  the 
other. 

d.  His  hospitable  intentions  were  brief,  but  expressive. 

(.    He  whistled  after  him,  and  shouted  his  name,  but  all  in  vain. 


RHETORICAL    CLASSIFICATION.  I  I 

LESSON    IV. 

THE   SENTENCE.  —  RHETORICAL   CLASSIFICATION. 

Kinds  of  Sentences.  —  On  the  basis  of  rhetorical  value,  sen- 
tences may  be  divided  into  Periodic,  Loose,  The  Compromise, 
Balanced,  Short,  and  Long. 

I.    Periodic  Sentence. 

A  periodic  sentence  is  one  which  is  so  constructed  that  the 
complete  meaning  is  suspended  till  the  close. 

Examples.  —  (i)  "When  the  sun  shines  forth,  we  will  set 
sail." 

(2)  "What  I  cannot  describe  is,  how  in  the  innermost  recesses 
of  my  own  heart,  I  had  a  lurking  suspicion." 

2.    Loose  Sentence. 

A  loose  sentence  is  one  which  is  so  constructed  that  it  may  be 
brought  to  a  close  at  one  or  more  places  and  still  be  complete  in 
sense. 

Examples.  —  ( i )  "  The  battle  was  won  |  at  last  |  after  hard 
fighting  I  and  prodigious  displays  of  valor." 

(2)  "The  mature  man,  in  the  desire  to  get  quit  of  an  early 
habit,  attempts  an  imitation  |  in  which  he  is  prevented  from  suc- 
ceeding I  by  the  lasting  consequences  of  the  unintentional  imita- 
tion, I  into  which  he  had  glided  when  a  child." 

In  these  examples  we  may  stop  at  the  several  places  marked 
and  have  complete  sense. 

A  loose  sentence  is  not  necessarily  a  faulty  sentence,  but  as  a 
person  who  writes  such  sentences  is  apt  to  fall  into  obscure  and 
careless  constructions,  it  is  well  for  beginners  to  give  attention  to 
forming  periodic  sentences. 

Most  loose  sentences  may  be  converted  into  periodic  by  some 


12  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

change  in  arrangement.  The  first  example  will  become  periodic 
if  arranged  thus  :  "  At  last,  after  hard  fighting,  and  prodigious  dis- 
plays of  bravery,  the  battle  was  won." 

3.    The  Compromise. 

The  compromise  is  a  sentence  that  is  partly  a  periodic  and 
partly  a  loose  sentence.  It  consists  of  two  or  more  parts,  one  of 
which  is  periodic,  while  the  sentence  taken  as  a  whole  is  a  loose 
sentence. 

Exa7tiple. —  "He  then  sent  two  more,  and  one  of  them,  hurry- 
ing  back  in  affright,  said  that  the  whole  British  army  was  at  hand." 

4.  Balanced  Sentence. 

A  balanced  sentence  is  one  which  contains  two  clauses  that  arc 
similar  in  form,  and  either  parallel  or  contrasted  in  meaning. 

Examples.  —  ( i )  "  Contempt  is  the  proper  punishment  of  affec- 
tation ;  and  detestation,  the  just  consequence  of  hypocrisy." 

(2)  "The  style  of  Dryden  is  capricious  and  varied,  that  of  Pope 
is  cautious  and  uniform.  Dryden  obeys  the  motions  of  his  own 
mind;  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to  his  own  rules  of  composition. 
Dryden  is  sometimes  vehement  and  rapid ;  Pope,  always  smooth, 
uniform,  and  level.  Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field,  rising  into 
inequalities,  and  diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abundant 
vegetation ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn,  shaven  by  the  scythe  and 
levelled  by  the  roller." 

5.    Short  and  Long  Sentences. 

These  terms  carry  with  them  their  own  definition. 

Advantages  of  Each.  —  Each  of  these  kinds  of  sentences  has 
its  advantage.  Short  sentences  are  more  easily  understood,  and, 
if  introduced  after  a  number  of  long  ones,  give  sprightliness  and 
animation,  as  well  as  relieve  the  monotony  by  variety.  If,  how- 
ever, too  many  of  them  are  used  together,  the  effect  is  irksome, 
because  abrupt.  Long  sentences,  on  the  other  hand,  although 
requiring  closer  attention,  afford  greater  scope  for  the  addition  of 


LOOSE    SENTENCES.  13 

subordinate  particulars,  for  the  expansion  of  the  main  thought,  and 
for  the  introduction  of  finer  oratorical  cadences. 

When  Used.  —  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  rules  to  determine 
when  each  of  the  different  classes  of  sentences  should  be  used. 
Perhaps,  the  loose  sentence  is  best  adapted  to  composition  in  which 
simplicity  and  clearness  are  the  aim,  such  as  narration,  description, 
and  exposition ;  the  periodic  and  the  compromise,  to  those  which 
are  required  to  be  forcible,  as  persuasion ;  the  balanced  sentence, 
to  satire,  and  to  essays,  in  which  characters  or  subjects  are  com- 
pared or  set  off  by  contrast.  Long  and  short  sentences  should  be 
introduced  to  relieve  one  another.  As  the  continuous  use  of  any 
one  kind  becomes  monotonous,  the  best  rule  that  can  be  given  is 
to  study  variety. 

EXERCISE  IV. 
Periodic  and  Loose  Sentences, 

Direction.  —  Reconstruct  these  Periodic  Sentences  into  Loose  Sentences. 

1.  He  excelled  both  in  ability  and  in  industry. 

2.  She  spent  her  time  either  in  sewing  or  in  reading. 

3.  Without  further  preface  he  conducted  them  into  his  Uttle 
schoolroom. 

4.  While  the  sacred  words,  "  I  am  a  Roman  citizen,"  were  on 
his  lips,  you  ordered  him  to  death. 

5.  If  a  doubt  remains  on  the  mind  of  any  member,  let  him 
examine  the  trade  returns  of  the  several  States. 

6.  Were  this  opinion  well  founded,  one  generation  would  have 
no  advantage  over  another. 

7.  Unless  this  measure  is  clearly  constitutional,  I  shall  not  vote 
for  it. 

8.  Where  this  is  the  case  in  any  part  of  the  world,  those  who 
are  free  are  by  far  the  most  proud  and  jealous  of  their  freedom. 

9.  When  he  was  not  under  the  influence  of  some  strange 
scruple,  or  some  domineering  passion,  which  prevented  him  from 
boldly  and  fairly  investigating  a  subject,  he  was  a  wary  and  acute 
reasoner. 


14  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

10.  When  he  talked,  he  clothed  his  wit  and  his  sense  in  forcible 
and  natural  expressions. 

11.  It  was  during  the  thirty  years  which  preceded  the  appear- 
ance of  Johnson's  Lives  that  the  diction  and  versification  of  Eng- 
lish poetry  were,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  commonly  used, 
most  correct. 

12.  Supposing  the  story  true,  we  may  remark  that  the  gradual 
change  of  manners,  though  imperceptible  in  the  process,  appears 
great  when  different  times,  and  those  not  very  distant,  are  com- 
pared. 

13.  Of  the  mind  that  can  trade  in  corruption,  and  can  deliber- 
ately pollute  itself  with  ideal  wickedness  for  the  sake  of  spreading 
the  contagion  in  society,  I  wish  not  to  conceal  or  excuse  the 
depravity. 

EXERCISE  V. 

Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences. 

Direction.  —  Reconstruct  each  of  these  Loose  Sentences  into  one  or  more 
Periodic  Sentences. 

1.  He  repaid  her  by  breaking  her  fortune,  and  nearly  breaking 
her  heart, 

2.  We  welcome  you  to  the  blessings  of  good  government  and 
religious  liberty. 

3.  The  waves  rolled  over  his  head  and  threatened  to  drown  him, 
but  he  reached  the  shore  in  safety. 

4.  Olivia  would  be  drawn  as  an  Amazon,  sitting  upon  a  bank 
of  flowers,  dressed  in  a  green  Joseph,  richly  laced  with  gold,  and 
a  whip  in  her  hand. 

5.  Alice  could  not  see  his  blushing  cheek,  but  she  noticed  his 
hesitation  and  that  he  retracted  the  promise  he  had  made. 

6.  Spenser's  poem  strikes  the  note  of  the  coming  Puritanism 
both  in  its  conception  and  in  the  way  in  which  its  conception  is 
realized  in  the  portion  of  the  work  that  he  completed. 

7.  His  habitation  is  some  poor  thatched  roof,  distinguished  from 
his  barn  by  the  loop-holes  that  let  out  smoke,  which  the  rain  had 


COMBINING    SENTENCES.  I  5 

long  since  washed  through  but  for  the  double  ceiling  of  bacon  on 
the  inside,  which  has  hung  there  from  his  grandsire's  time,  and  is 
yet  to  make  rashers  for  posterity, 

&.  I  hereby  caution  all  parties  against  giving  credit  in  my  name 
without  an  order  from  me,  as  I  will  not  be  responsible  for  the  same 
after  this  date,  without  my  written  order. 

9.  Mr.  Pym  was  looked  upon  as  the  man  of  greatest  experience 
in  Parliament,  where  he  had  served  very  long,  and  was  always  a 
man  of  business,  being  an  officer  in  the  Exchequer,  and  of  a  good 
reputation  generally,  though  known  to  be  inclined  to  the  Puritan 
party  ;  not  yet  so  furiously  resolved  against  the  Church  as  the  other 
leadiiig  men  were,  and  wholly  devoted  to  the  Earl  of  Bedford,  who 
had  nothing  of  that  spirit. 

10.  A  history  that  does  not  serve  this  purpose  would  be  per- 
fectly useless,  though  it  might  be  filled  with  battles  and  commo- 
tions. 

11.  The  mind  is  crippled  and  contracted  by  perpetual  attention 
to  the  same  ideas  ;  just  as  any  act  or  posture,  long  continued,  will 
disfigure  the  limbs. 

12.  This  happy  region  was  peopled  with  innumerable  swarms 
of  spirits,  who  applied  themselves  to  exercises  and  diversions 
according  as  their  fancies  led  them. 

EXERCISE  VI. 

Combining  Sentences. 

Direction.  —  Combine  the  following  short  sentences  into  longer  ones. 

Caution.  —  In  combining  short  sentences  into  longer  ones,  the  pupil  should 
be  careful  to  give  every  part  its  proper  place.  The  leading  thoughts  must 
form  the  principal  clauses  and  the  others  must  occupy  positions  of  subordina- 
tion, corresponding  to  their  importance.  For  example,  in  combining  the 
statements,  "In  1857  an  Act  was  passed.  It  cut  down  the  average  of  duty 
to  twenty  per  cent,"  if  we  wish  to  give  "  the  passing  of  the  Act "  promi- 
nence, the  sentence  will  read,  "In  1857  an  Act  was  passed,  cutting  down," 
etc.  If,  however,  we  desire  to  give  prominence  to  the  "cutting  down  of 
the  average  of  duty  to  twenty  per  cent,"  then  we  must  write,  "  The  average 
of  duty  was  cut  down  to  twenty  per  cent  by  an  Act  passed  in  1857." 


l6  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Separate.  —  A  frog  had  seen  an  ox.  She  wanted  to  make  her- 
self as  big  as  he.     She  attempted  it.     She  burst  asunder. 

Combined. —  (i)  A  frog  had  seen  an  ox,  and  wanted  to  make 
herself  as  big  as  he ;  but  whep  she  attempted  it  she  burst  asunder. 

(2)  A  frog  that  had  seen  an  ox,  and  wanted  to  make  herself  as 
big  as  he,  burst  asunder  when  she  attempted  it. 

(3)  When  the  frog  burst  asunder,  she  was  wishing  and  attempt- 
ing to  make  herself  as  big  as  an  ox  which  she  had  seen. 

(4)  Because  a  frog,  when  she  had  seen  an  ox,  wanted  to  make 
herself  as  big  as  he,  and  attempted  it,  she  burst  asunder. 

(5)  It  is  said  that  a  frog,  having  seen  an  ox,  wanted  to  make 
herself  as  big  as  he,  and  burst  asunder  in  the  attempt. 

1.  He  drew  a  picture  of  his  old  home.  It  showed  the  house. 
He  was  born  in  it.     It  showed  the  barns.     It  showed  the  orchard. 

2.  They  played  on.  They  played  till  six  in  the  evening.  They 
then  desisted.     They  desisted  till  after  dinner. 

3.  He  reached  his  house.  He  gave  orders.  He  was  not  to  be 
disturbed.  He  went  to  bed.  He  tried  to  sleep.  He  tried  in 
vain. 

4.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  agreed  to.  It  was 
agreed  to  on  the  4th  of  July.  It  was  engrossed  on  paper.  It 
was  signed.  John  Hancock  signed  it.  He  was  president  of  the 
Congress. 

5.  Fair  sir,  you  spit  upon  me.  It  was  last  Wednesday  morning. 
You  called  me  dog.  That  was  another  time.  I  am  to  lend  you 
money.     It  is  for  these  courtesies. 

6.  Xerxes  resolved  to  invade  Greece.  He  raised  an  army.  The 
army  consisted  of  two  millions  of  men.  This  was  the  greatest  force 
ever  brought  into  the  field. 

7.  He  then  left  the  lists.  But  he  returned.  He  returned  almost 
immediately.  He  had  in  his  hand  a  willow  wand.  It  was  long. 
It  was  about  six  feet  long.  It  was  straight.  It  was  thick.  It  was 
thicker  than  a  man's  thumb. 

8.  I  struck  the  man  in  self-defence.  I  explained  this  to  the 
magistrate.     He  would  not  believe  me.     Witnesses  were  called  to 


THE    RESOLVING    OF    SENTENCES.  1 7 

support  my  statements.  He  committed  me  to  prison.  He  had 
a  right  to  do  this.  This  right  is  rarely  exercised  in  such  circum- 
stances.    I  remonstrated. 

9.  Then  two  or  three  boys  laughed.  They  sneered.  A  big 
fellow  was  standing  in  the  middle  of  the  room.  He  picked  up  a 
slipper.  He  shied  at  the  boy.  The  boy  was  kneeling.  The  big 
fellow  called  him  a  snivelling  young  fellow. 

10.  The  ceiling  is  arched  and  lofty.  At  one  end  is  a  gallery. 
In  this  there  is  an  organ.  The  room  was  once  adorned  with  weap- 
ons and  trophies  of  the  chase.  The  walls  are  now  covered  with 
family  portraits. 

11.  The  Baron  had  just  drawn  on  his  jack-boots.  He  had 
girded  on  his  sword.  He  was  about  to  mount.  He  intended  to 
sally  forth.  An  apparition  made  him  pause.  A  lady  was  approach- 
ing. She  was  mounted  on  a  palfrey.  She  was  attended  by  a 
cavalier;  He  was  on  horseback.  She  galloped  up  to  the  gate. 
She  sprang  from  her  horse.  She  fell  at  the  Baron's  feet.  She 
embraced  him. 

12.  The  Agnostic  tells  me  he  is  blind  and  deaf,  dumb,  torpid, 
and  dead  to  the  spiritual.  I  must  believe  him.  Jesus  tells  me  that. 
Paul  tells  me  that.  Science  tells  me  that.  He  knows  nothing  of 
this  outermost  circle.     We  are  compelled  to  trust  his  sincerity. 


EXERCISE  VII. 

The  Resolving  of  Sentences. 

Direction.  —  Resolve  these  sentences  into  simple  statements. 

Combined.  —  All  the  rest  of  that  day  Assar  was  kept  busy  with 
his  master  in  counting  out  money,  and  making  up  accounts ;  and," 
though  his  brain  was  in  a  whirl,  yet  he  made  no  mistakes. 

Separate.  —  Assar  was  kept  busy  that  day.  He  was  kept  busy 
all  that  day.  He  was  kept  busy  with  his  master.  He  was  kept 
busy  counting  money.  He  was  kept  busy  making  up  accounts. 
His  brain  was  in  a  whirl.     He  made  no  mistakes. 


l8  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

1.  I  was  born  on  the  side  of  a  mountain,  near  a  village  of  Peru, 
and  made  a  voyage  to  England  in  an  ingot,  under  the  convoy  of 
Sir  Francis  Drake. 

2.  The  people  favored  my  disposition  and  shifted  me  so  fast 
from  hand  to  hand,  that,  before  I  was  five  years  old,  I  had  travelled 
into  almost  every  corner  of  the  nation. 

3.  The  Mound-builders  knew  how  to  model  in  clay  a  variety 
of  objects,  such  as  birds,  quadrupeds,  and  human  faces.  They 
practised  farming,  though  they  had  no  domestic  animals  to  help 
them. 

4.  Livingstone's  example  and  death  have  acted  like  an  inspi- 
ration, filling  Africa  with  an  army  of  explorers  and  missionaries, 
and  raising  in  Europe  a  powerful  feeling  against  the  slave-trade. 

5..  When  the  prisoners  were  ordered  to  enter  the  cell,  they 
imagined  the  soldiers  were  joking ;  and  being  in  high  spirits  on 
account  of  the  promise  of  the  Nabob  to  spare  their  lives,  they 
laughed  and  jested  at  the  absurdity  of  the  notion. 

6.  Mr.  Pickwick  paused,  considered,  pulled  off  his  gloves,  and 
put  them  in  his  hat,  took  two  or  three  short  runs,  balked  himself 
as  often,  and  at  last  took  another  run  and  went  slowly  down  the 
slide. 

7.  On  the  2d  April,  Francis  Drake  sailed  from  Plymouth  with 
four  vessels  belonging  to  the  Queen,  and  with  twenty-four  furnished 
by  the  merchants  of  London,  and  other  private  individuals. 

8.  After  the  Restoration  the  entire  control  of  printing  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  Government  by  the  Licensing  Act  of  1662, 
which,  though  originally  passed  only  for  three  years,  was  continued 
by  subsequent  renewals  until  1679. 

9.  Of  nervous  fire,  indeed,  he  had  an  abundance,  though  it  was 
not  the  fire  which  flames  up  in  the  radiant  colors  of  a  strong 
imagination.  It  was  rather  the  glow  of  a  thoroughly  convinced 
reason,  of  iptellectual  ingenuity,  of  argumentative  keenness. 

10.  The  new  and  fair  lady  of  Castlewood  found  the  sad,  lonely 
little  occupant  of  this  gallery  busy  over  his  great  book,  which  he 
laid  down  when  he  was  aware  that  a  stranger  was  at  hand. 


BALANCED    SENTENCES.  I9 

EXERCISE  VIII. 

Balanced  Sentences. 

1.  Construct  balanced  sentences  containing  parallel  statements 
about,  —  genius  and  wealth,  hope  and  expectation,  honor  and 
dignity,  bravery  and  courage,  wit  and  humor,  pleasure  and  profit, 
promising  and  performing,  grammar  and  rhetoric,  poetry  and 
painting,  advice  and  money,  shrewdness  and  hard  work,  fame  and 
fortune,  sympathy  and  support. 

2.  Form  balanced  sentences  containing  statements  about  the 
opposites,  —  love  and  hate,  virtue  and  vice,  labor  and  rest,  summer 
and  winter,  pride  and  humility,  knowledge  and  ignorance,  inno- 
cence and  guilt,  friend  and  enemy,  violence  and  moderation,  wis- 
dom and  folly,  pleasure  and  pain,  right  and  wrong,  flattery  and 
detraction,  reward  and  penalty,  sobriety  and  drunkenness,  ornament 
and  blemish,  taste  and  vulgarity,  beauty  and  ugliness,  contentment 
and  discontentment,  perspicuity  and  obscurity. 

3.  Draw  up  a  series  of  contrasts  about  —  North  and  South 
America,  Italy  and  Switzerland,  France  and  England,  Canada  and 
the  United  States,  history  and  geography,  mathematics  and  classics, 
reading  and  writing,  Scott  and  Byron,  Pope  and  Cowper,  Irving 
and  Goldsmith. 

4.  Make  the  parts  of  the  following  balanced  sentences  similar 
in  form  :  — 

a.  A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father ;  but  a  son  that  is  foolish 
causes  his  mother  much  sorrow. 

b.  The  errors  of  young  men  are  the  ruin  of  business ;  but  when 
aged  men  err  it  is  in  not  doing  more  or  in  not  acting  sooner. 

c.  I  do  not  think  that  a  broken  heart  is  fatal  to  many  of  my 
own  sex ;  but  it  is  easy  for  me  to  believe  that  it  withers  many  a 
lovely  woman  into  an  early  grave. 

d.  The  character  of  Milton  was  distinguished  by  loftiness  of 
thought ;  Dante  had  intensity  of  feeling. 

e.  It  never  occurred  to  Southey  that  a  rumor  does  not  always 
prove  a  fact ;  that  a  theory  may  not  always  be  established  by  facts. 


20  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON   V. 

CAPITALIZATION. 

Capitals  are  used  in  the  following  cases :  — 
1-1.   The  first  word  of  a  sentence. 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

3.  Nouns  personified  ;  as,  "  Come,  gentle  Spring." 

4.  The  words  I  and  O. 

^5.    Every  proper  name.     This  includes  :  — 

,  a.   The    chief  parts   of  a   compound ;    as,    "  New   York," 
"Alexander  the  Great." 
d.    The  names  of  the  months  and  the  days  of  the  week. 

c.  All  names  of  the  Deity  ;  as,  "The  Supreme  Ruler,"  "The 

Most  High."    Practice  varies  in  the  case  of  pronouns. 

d.  All  the  names  of  the  Bible  and  of  its  books.    If  the  Bible 

is  thought  of  merely  as  a  book,  a  small  letter  is  used ; 
as,  "  He  sold  bibles  and  other  books." 

e.  The  names  of  the  cardinal  points,  except  when  used  to 

express  mere  direction ;  as,  "  He  went  north." 

f.  Titles   of  honor,  respect,   or  office  when  joined   to  a 

proper  name  of  which  they  really  form  a  part ;  as, 
"It  was  Queen  Elizabeth  that  beheaded  Lord  Bur- 
leigh." 

g.  Common   nouns   that   are    closely  joined   with    proper 

names  ;  as,  "  The  Lake  of  the  Woods,"  "  The  Chesa- 
peake Bay,"  "  Simcoe  Street." 

h.  Any  word  that  for  the  time  being  is  used  as  a  proper 
name  ;  as, " The  Wars  of  the  Roses,"  "The  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

/.  Every  adjective  derived  from  a  proper  name  ;  as,  Roman, 
American.  Adjectives  that  have  assumed  a  general 
meaning  are  written  with  a  small  letter ;  as,  mercurial, 
herculean. 


CAPITALIZATION.  21 

6.  Words  that  have  some  special  importance ;  as,  "  When  a 
woman  is  introduced  into  the  Director's  presence."  A  capital  is 
not  used  when  the  words  have  their  ordinary  application  ;  as,  "  He 
is  a  director  in  the  company." 

:  7.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation ;  as,  "  He  inquired, 
•  Where  did  your  father  live  ? '  "  If  the  quotation  falls  in  with 
the  grammatical  construction  of  the  sentence,  a  small  letter  is  used. 
t^8.  The  principal  words  in  the  name  of  a  book  or  in  the  title  or 
heading  when  in  the  body  of  discourse  ;  "  The  Position  and  Influ- 
ence of  Lord  Byron's  Poetry." 

9.  The  titles  of  books,  the  headings,  chapters,  and  sections  are 
generally  written  entirely  in  capitals.  This  is  on  the  principle  that 
in  fancy  printing  capitals  are  placed  wherever  they  add  to  the 
appearance. 

10.  To  denote  emphasis  ;  as,  "  He  cried  out,  '  Strike  !  Strike  ! 
Strike  !    STRIKE  ! '  " 

1 1 .  With  the  first  word  in  each  part  of  an  enumeration  when 
the  numbers  are  followed  by  a  period.  If  the  numbers  are 
enclosed  in  parentheses,  small  letters  are  used. 

1 2.  The  first  word  of  a  sentence  embodied  in  another  sentence  ; 
as,  "The  question  is,  Who  will  be  elected?" 

13.  To  begin  the  real  statement  after  an  introductory  word ; 
as,  "  Resolved,  That  we,  etc." 

14.  In  some  special  cases  in  letters.     See  below. 

15.  Any  important  word  that  is  repeated  in  the  body  of  dis- 
course.    This  rule  should  not  be  carried  too  far. 

EXERCISE  IX. 

Capitalization. 

Direction.  —  Write  out  the  following,  with  capitals  in  the  proper  places. 
Give  reasons. 

1.  mr.  partridge,  secretary  of  the  discharged  prisoner's  aid 
society. 

2.  ben-hur  :  or,  the  days  of  the  messiah,  by  lew  Wallace. 


22  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

3.  richard  whately,  lord  archbishop  of  london,  and  sir  Joshua 
jebb,  k.c.b. 

4.  when  it  was  said  to  anaxagorus,  "  the  athenians  have  con- 
demned you  to  die,"  he  said  again,  "  and  nature  them." 

5.  the  first  works  from  caxton's  press  were  "  the  game  of  chess  " 
and  "  the  poems  of  chaucer." 

6.  and  freedom  shrieked  when  kosciusko  felL 

7.  The  poem  is  entitled  english  bards  and  scotch  reviewers. 

8.  The  lake  of  the  woods  is  a  fine  sheet  of  water. 

9.  The  committee  drew  up  the  following  by-laws:  i.  that  no 
cattle  be  allowed  on  the  streets;  2.  that  the  lights  be  put  out  at 
midnight. 

10.  The  queen  of  sheba  came  to  see  king  Solomon's  glory. 

11.  The  last  book  of  the  old  testament  is  called  the  book  of 
malachi. 

12.  He  looked  north  and  said,  "the  north  is  to  be  our  future 
home." 

13.  On  coming  back  to  maine  on  tuesday,  november  the  3d, 
he  found  himself  without  a  dollar  in  his  pocket. 

14.  An  invitation  was  sent  to  william,  prince  of  orange,  to  come 
and  take  the  english  throne. 

1 5 .  He  entered  tlfe  lists  against  luther  with  an  "  assertion  of 
the  seven  sacraments^'  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with  the  tit)e 
of  "  defender  of  the  faith." 

16.  He  travelled  from  new  hampshire  to  nova  scotia. 

17.  We  have  had  our  "revolutions  of  eighty-eight"  officially 
called  "  glorious " ;  and  our  other  revolutions  not  yet  called 
glorious. 

18.  Alas  !  for  the  rarity  of  christian  charity  in  the  old  world. 

19.  He  set  out  on  a  friday  early  in  the  month  of  april  and 
travelled  due  north,  hoping  to  reach  the  north  pole. 

20.  The  question,  "  whence  are  we  and  whither  are  we  going?  " 
has  re-echoed  all  down  the  ages. 

21.  The  works  of  the  creator  of  the  universe  could  not  have 
existed  without  the  wisdom  of  a  creator. 


PUNCTUATION.  23 

LESSON   VI. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  a  method  of  indicating  the  construction  of  a 
sentence.  Hence  the  grand  rule  that  should  guide  us  in  punctu- 
ating is  :  Understand  the  construction,  and  then  punctuate  so  as 
to  show  it. 

Marks  Used. — The  principal  marks  used  in  punctuation  are  :  — 
The  Comma  (,),  the  Semi-colon  (;),  the  Colon  (:),  the  Dash 
( — ),  the  Period  (.),  the  Interrogation  Point  (?),  the  Exclama- 
tion Point  (!),  the  Curves  [()],  the  Caret  (a). 

The  Comma. 

The  Comma  is  used  :  — 
I.  To  isolate  — 
i-^.   The  nominative  absolute ;  as,  "  That  finished,  our  duty 
is  done." 
b.    The  nominative  of  address  ;  as,  "  O  Grave,  where  is  thy 

victory?" 
Vc.    Words  in  apposition  ;  as,  "  Brutus,  the  last  of  the  Romans, 

was  noble." 
d.   The  relative  clause  when  not  restrictive ;  as,  "  The  sun, 

which  shines  above,  is  golden." 
^'e.    Intermediate  expressions  ;  as,  "  The  sun,  with  its  planets, 

is  but  a  small  portion  of  the  universe." 
/.   Dependent  clauses  ;  as,  "  Uriah  proceeded,  as  I  sat  gazing 

at  him,  with  this  thought  in  mind." 
g.  Phrases  and  single  words  used  parenthetically ;  stich  as 
then,  therefore,  however,  too,  indeed,  perhaps,  surely, 
finally,  namely,  in  short,  in  fact,  in  brief,  no  doubt,  as 
it  were,  to  be  sure,  of  course,  after  all,  to  be  brief;  as, 
"  Poetry  has,  nevertheless,  a  refining  influence." 


24  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Some  of  these  words  may  be  used  with  an  adverbial 
force  only  and  then  take  no  comma ;  as,  "  However 
wise  he  may  be." 
^i.   Adverbs  or  phrases  of  order ;  as,  "  In  the  first  place,  let 
us  deal  with  the  spiritual." 
2.    Between  pairs  of  words  or  phrases  ;  as,  "  The  rich  and  poor, 
the  weak  and  strong,  have  one  common  father." 
K3.   When  a  word  is  omitted  ;  as,  "  To  err  is  human  ;  to  forgive, 
divine."     "  Alfred  was  brave,  pious,  and  patriotic." 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  comma  is  inserted  before 
the  and  connecting  the  last  of  the  series.  Sometimes  when 
the  parts  are  emphatic,  the  comma  and  the  and  are  both 
inserted. 

4.  To  separate  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence,  if  they  are 
simple  in  construction;  as,  "We  can  tolerate  the  first  line,  but 
the  allusion  to  trees  is  unsatisfactory." 

If  the  parts  are  short  and  closely  connected  in  sense,  no  comma 
is  needed. 

5.  To  set  off  inverted  phrases  and  clauses  standing  at  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence ;  as,  "  To  obtain  an  education,  he  was 
willing  to  make  sacrifices." 

The  comma  is  often  omitted  in  short  sentences. 

6.  To  separate  adjectives  quahfying  the  same  noun,  except 
when  the  second  adjective  and  the  noun  form  a  complex  idea, 
as  in  "  His  red  right  hand." 

7.  Before  short  direct  quotations  ;  as,  "  The  poet  says, '  Be  wise 
to-day.'  " 

8.  Before  the  predicate  when  the  subject  is  long,  or  when  it 
has  several  qualifying  words  or  phrases ;  as,  "  Any  one  that  refuses 
to  earn  an  honest  liveUhood,  is  not  an  object  of  charity." 

9.  To  set  off  negative  expressions,  used  by  way  of  contrast ; 
as,  "  The  king,  but  not  his  councillors,  was  present." 

10.  Before  a  clause  or  phrase  that  is  used  loosely  or  apposi- 
tively;  as,  "There  was  no  remains  of  the  clown  about  him,  save 
and  except  the  redness  of  his  cheeks." 


THE   COMMA.  2$ 

11.  Between   a  word   and  its   repetition;   as,   "Sweet,  sweet 
home." 

12.  Between  the  parts  of  a  transposed  name  ;  as,  "  Thompson, 
Henry  S." 

-'     13.    Before  the  explanatory  or;  as,  "The  skull,  or  cranium." 

14.  Between  words  or  phrases  that  express  contrast ;  as, "  Though 
deep,  yet  clear." 

15.  To  divide  figures ;  as,  7,840,321. 

16.  To  separate   titles  and  degrees  from   proper  names,  also 
from  each  other  ;  as,  "  John  Campbell,  M.A.,  Ph.D." 

EXERCISE  X. 

Punctuation. 

Direction.  —  Insert  commas  in  the  proper  places,  and  give  your  reason  in 
each  case. 

1.  What,then.is  your  view  of  it? 

2.  Truth  like  gold  shines  brighter  by  collision. 

3.  Nature's  sweet  restorer  balmy  sleep. 

4.  All  classes  high  and  low  rich  and  poor  have  the  same  oppor- 
tunities. 

5.  To  work  is  pleasant ;  to  ride. healthful. 

6.  There  being  no  remedy  he  determined  to  endure  his  afflic- 
tion. 

7.  Practically  indeed^  the  religious  question  hardly  existed  there. 

8.  Spring  returning,  the  swallows  reappear. 

9.  Destiny  which  gives  and  takes  away,  transfers  fame  from  one 
to  another. 

10.  When  fell  the  night,  up  sprung  the  breeze. 

11.  To  gratify  his  wish,  I  was  willing  to  do  anything. 

12.  Our  own  hearty  not  others'  opinions /orms  our  true  honor. 

13.  It  is  an  incessant  act  of  creation  .ever  advancing  and  ever 
developing. 

14.  No  man  unless  he  is  an  absolute  beggar  should  expect  to 
receive  an  education  for  nothing_any  more  than  a  loaf  of  bread. 


26  COMPO'SITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

1 5 .  Having  frowned  upon  the  abashed  Bob .  the  old  gentleman 
began  to  read  the  letter. 

1 6.  What  lay  there  was  if  I  saw  aright  a  wingless  bird. 

1 7.  Come  back  come  back  Horatius. 

18.  Volcanoes  throw  out  melted  rock,  or  lava~  ashes \sand  and 
dust. 

19.  Sugar,  also  is  found  there  as  for  example  in  the  sugar-beet. 

20.  He  could  not  only  lead  ,but  mould  an  army. 

21.  It  is  easy,  Mrs.  Dial. for  you  , who  have  always  as  every  one 
knows  set  yourself  above  me  to  account  for  laziness. 

22.  The  spirit. and  not  the  letter  of  the  law, should  be  followed. 

23.  He  evinced  astonishment  at  the  eccentric  not  to  say  ex- 
traordinary behavior  of  his  companions. 

24.  Yet  a  poet, to  be  a  poet.must  do  something  more. 

25.  The  poet. when  he  finds  a  truth  not  to  his  Hking  forth- 
with derides. evades  or  perverts  it. 


LESSON  VII. 

The  Semi-colon. 

The  semi-colon  is  used  :  — 

I.  To  separate  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence  less 
closely  connected  than  those  requiring  a  comma.  This  may 
occur : — 

a.  In  contrasts  ;  as,  "  Flattery  brings  friends  ;  truth  brings 

foes." 

b.  In  enumerations,  when  the  parts  are  particulars  indicated, 

or  preceded  by  a  colon  ;  as,  "  The  following  articles 
were  to  be  added  to  the  free  list :  agricultural  imple- 
ments ;  bark  for  tanning  purposes  ;  bath  bricks  ;  bricks 
for  building  ;  hay  ;  lime  ;  malt ;  manufactures  of  iron 
and  steel." 


THE    SEMI-COLON.  2/ 

c.  When  the  parts  are  short,  independent  sentences,  but 
are  written  as  a  compound  sentence  to  avoid  abrupt- 
ness ;  as,  "  Caesar  was  dead ;  the  soldiers  were  dis- 
persed ;  all  Rome  was  in  confusion." 

2.  To  separate  such  members  of  a  sentence  as  are  already  sub- 
divided by  commas  ;  as,  "  A  man  ought  warily  to  begin  changes, 
which  once  begun  will  continue ;  but  in  matters  that  return  not, 
he  may  be  more  magnificent." 

3.  When  a  sentence,  complete  in  itself,  is  followed  by  a  clause 
containing  an  inference,  consequence,  iteration,  or  enumeration ; 
as,  "  Of  what  consequence  are  all  the  qualities  of  a  doctrine,  if  that 
doctrine  is  not  communicated ;  and  communicated  it  is  not,  if  it 
be  not  understood." 

4.  Before  as  followed  by  an  example.  See  illustrations  in  this 
Lesson. 

The  Colon. 
The  colon  is  used  :  —  ' 

1.  To  indicate  a  greater  break  than  that  indicated  by  the  semi- 
colon. For  example,  parts  that  have  the  semi-colon  are  separated 
by  a  colon.     See  (i.  <^)  above. 

2.  Before  a  sentence  added  as  an  explanation  of  a  word  or  sen- 
tence ;  as,  "  English  Grammar  :  an  exposition  of  the  Principles  and 
Usages  of  the  English  Language." 

3.  Before  a  direct  quotation  ;  as,  "  Pope  makes  this  remark  : 
'  There  never  was  any  party  in  which  the  most  ignorant  were  not 
the  most  violent.'  " 

When  the  quotation  is  short,  a  comma  is  used  instead  of  a 
colon. 

4.  A  colon  may  be  used  instead  of  a  semi-colon  when  the  con- 
nective is  omitted. 

5.  A  full  stop  or  a  dash  is  now  often  used  where  a  colon  would 
formerly  have  been  placed.     See  Bacon's  Essays. 


28  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  XI. 

Punctuation. 

Direction.  —  Insert  commas,  semi-colons,  and  colons  where  they  are  re- 
quired.    State  your  reason  in  each  case. 

1.  Economy  is  no  disgrace  it  is  better  to  live  on  a  little  than  to 
outlive  a  great  deal. 

2.  You  have  called  yourself  an  atom  in  the  universe  you  have 
said  you  are  but  an  insect  in  the  solar  blaze  is  your  present  pride 
consistent  with  these  professions. 

3.  Mr.  Gladstone  says  "  The  older  I  grow  the  more  confirmed 
I  am  in  my  faith  in  religion." 

4.  Our  strongest  sentiments  are  enveloped  in  obscurity  modesty 
virtuous  love  sincere  friendship  have  all  their  secrets  which  the 
world  must  not  know. 

5.  The  lake  the  bay  the  waterfall  and  then  the  spirit  of  them 
all. 

6.  Mercy  is  twice  blessed  it  blesseth  him  that  gives  and  him 
that  takes. 

7.  Man  counts  his  life  by  years  the  oak  by  centuries. 

8.  The  artillery  closes  up  the  flanking  fire  from  the  gims  opens 
upon  the  head  of  their  column  the  column  breaks  the  Duke  seizes 
the  moment  and  advances  toward  the  ridge. 

9.  Provisions  having  failed  the  garrison  was  obliged  to  capitu- 
late one  of  the  terms  being  departure  with  military  honors. 

10.  While  I  write  the  bell  rings  I  wonder  if  it  tells  the  correct 
time  strange  is  it  not  if  it  does. 

11.  You  may  swell  every  expense  still  more  extravagantly  accu- 
mulate every  assistance  you  can  beg  or  borrow  traffic  and  barter 
with  every  prince  that  sends  his  subjects  to  the  shambles  of  a 
foreign  country  your  efforts  are  forever  vain  and  impotent. 

12.  He  always  observed  the  metrical  form  which  is  of  itself  of 
the  nature  of  poetry  he  also  used  the  choicest  of  ordinary  words 
for  the  expression  of  fact  very  often  he  did  more. 


THE    DASH.  29 

13.  Poetic  truth  is  a  misnomer  it  is  a  play  upon  words. 

14.  He  had  brought  all  but  one  and  that  one  was  very  heavy 
had  he  had  more  time  he  could  have  brought  it  also. 

15.  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd  I  shall  not  want. 

16.  The  outhne  of  the  story  was  A  slave  determined  to  avenge 
his  own  wrongs  by  inflicting  terror  upon  the  town. 

17.  The  first  great  lesson  a  young  man  should  learn  is  that  he 
knows  nothing  and  the  earlier  and  more  thoroughly  this  lesson  is 
learned  the  better. 

18.  Reading  makes  a  full  man  conference  a  ready  man  and 
writing  an  exact  man. 

19.  If  the  ship  strikes  upon  Scylla  it  is  dashed  in  pieces  upon 
the  rocks  if  upon  Charybdis  it  is  swallowed  outright. 

20.  The  proposed  treaty  suggested  (i)  that  the  duration  of  the 
treaty  should  be  twenty-one  years  (2)  that  all  the  conditions  of 
the  old  treaty  of  1854  should  be  renewed. 

21.  For  x'Vddison  three  defences  may  be  set  up  (i)  his  satire 
arouses  no  bitterness  (2)  it  is  never  personal  (3)  it  is  always 
employed  on  the  side  of  virtue. 


LESSON   VIII. 

The  Dash. 

The  dash  is  used  :  — 

1 .  To  indicate  a  pause  made  for  rhetorical  effect ;  as,  "  I  have 
—  only  poverty  and  rags." 

2.  To  mark  suppressed  feeling  or  an  unexpected  turn  in  the 
sentiment ;  as,  "  He  had  no  malice  on  his  mind  —  no  ruffles  on 
his  shirt." 

3.  Instead  of  parentheses  or  commas,  especially  when  the  par- 
enthetical clause  is  abrupt  or  unexpected ;  as,  "  I  believe  —  at 
least  I  know  —  that  he  was  not  rich." 


30  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

4.  Between  words  repeated  for  emphasis ;  as,  "  Oh,  do  not  — 
do  not  forsake  me." 

5.  When  such  words  as  that  is,  natnely,  as,  are  omitted  ;  as, 
"  They  hastened  onward  —  these  three." 

6.  To  denote  a  deliberate  or  hesitating  manner  of  utterance ; 
as,  "I  thought  —  you  might  —  just  —  want  —  to." 

7.  Before  a  Word  or  clause  that  sums  up  preceding  particu- 
lars ;  as,  "  Tears,  prayers,  supplications  —  none  of  these  moved 
him." 

8.  Between  the  expressions  ot  different  speakers  in  a  dialogue, 
ivhen  those  expressions  are  written  in  the  same  line. 

9.  To  denote  an  omission  of:  — 

a.    Letters  in  a  word ;  as,  "  He  was  born  in  C ." 

If,    Figures  or  words  ;  as,  "  In  the  year "  ;  "  In  18 —  "  ; 

"Sections     1-56";    "Think    of    the    time    wasted, 

of ." 

10.  With  other  stops  :  — 

a.  To  denote  a  longer  pause. 

d.  Before  a  quotation,  if  long. 

c.  After  a  side-head. 

d.  Before  the  name  of  an  author  whose  words  are  quoted. 

e.  Before  a  new  paragraph  that  drops  to  the  next  line. 

The  Period. 
The  period  is  used  :  — 
II.    After  every  complete  sentence  not  interrogative  or  exclama- 
tory. 

2. '  After  abbreviations  ;  as,  Mo.,  LL.B.,  Dr.         '  • 
With    some    familiar  abbreviations  the  period  is  omitted  ;   as, 
cab,  Tom. 

3.  After  Roman  numerals,  except  in  paging;  as,  "Charles  XIL 
of  Sweden." 

4.  After  headings  ;  as,  "Thomson's  Seasons." 

5.  After  signatures  ;  as,  "  U.  S.  Grant." 

6.  Before  a  decimal ;  as,  .042. 


THE    PERIOD.  31 

EXERCISE  XII. 

Punctuation. 

Direction.  —  In  the  following  sentences  insert  dashes,  commas,  and  periods 
Give  reasons. 

1.  The  marble  floor  was  as  smooth  as  glass  he  slipped  he  fell. 

2.  The  farmers  asked  for  a  reduction  of  taxes  and  they  got  the 
minister's  blessing. 

3.  Something  too  much  of  this  but  now  it  is  past  and  the  spell 
closes. 

4.  A  Roman  has  his  dignity  to  keep  up  and  dignity  is  expensive 
Clodius  must  cheat  like  a  scoundrel  to  live  like  a  gentleman. 

5.  Rider  and  horse  friend  and  foe  in  one  red  burial  blent. 

6.  I  reverence  the  afflictions  of  a  good  man  his  sorrows  are  sacred. 

7.  He  uttered  no  prayer  no  groan. 

8.  I  felt  yes  idiot  that  I  am  I  felt  degraded. 

9.  The  manner  may  be  full  of  respect  every  word  of  impatience 
repressed  and  yet  the  wits  of  the  listener  may  be  wool-gathering. 

10.  You  she  sobbed  are  a  woman  you  have  had  sisters  feel  for 
me  save  me. 

1 1 .  Give  it  no  name  earth  has  no  name  for  it  it  is  not  of  earth 
why  debase  it  with  earthly  epithets. 

12.  Has  he  been  ill  asked  the  child  with  a  child's  quick  sym- 
pathy. 

13.  You  will  marry  some  one  much  older  five  and  twenty  years 
perhaps  than  yourself. 

14.  To  sit  in  dumb  silence  and  be  forever  a  recipient  a  bucket 
eternally  pumped  into  without  power  of  reaction  is  doubtless  good 
for  no  man. 

15.  He  was  tolerably  learned  but  chiefly  in  civil  polity. 

16.  Does  he  forget  and  if  he  does  Russel  can  give  a  case  paral- 
lel to  his  own  but  more  full  of  instruction. 

1 7.  See  Prov  xx  2  5  also  Is  chap  xxviii  verse  9  and  Matt  xi  3. 

18.  Parse  is  derived  from  the  \jiX  pars  lit  a  part. 

19.  Decimal  01422  divided  by  9  gives  decimal  00158. 


32  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

20.  The  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  the  University  of  Leipsic  and  now  he  writes  his  name 
John  Jones  M  A  Ph  D. 

2 1 .  Such  titles  as  K  C  B  K  G  F  and  K  G  C  do  not  flourish  on 
this  continent. 


LESSON    IX. 

The  Interrogation  Point. 

The  interrogation  point  is  used :  — 

1 .  After  every  sentence  that  contains  a  direct  question  ;  as,  "  How 
can  I  tell?  "     "  '  Where  is  the  boat?'   exclaimed  the  captain." 

In  the  indirect  form  it  is  not  used ;  as,  "  The  gentleman  asked 
the  groom  where  the  horse  was." 

2.  In  curves  to  express  doubt;  as,  -'It  happened  in  the  year 
i856(?)." 

The  Exclamation  Point. 

The  exclamation  point  is  used :  — 

1.  After  interjections  ;  as,  "  Pshaw  !  "  "  dear  me  !  " 

2.  After  invocations  ;  as,  "  Hail,  holy  light !  offspring  of  heaven, 
first-born  !  " 

3.  After  clauses  or  sentences  that  express  sudden  or  violent 
emotion ;  as,  "  What  is  more  admirable  than  virtue  ! " 

Quotation  Marks. 

Quotation  marks  are  used  :  — 

I.    To  enclose  words  that  are  the  exact  language  of  some  other 
person. 

a.  When  a  quotation  contains  another  quotation,  double 
marks  are  used ;  as,  "  This  friend  of  humanity  says  : 
'  When  I  consider  their  lives,  I  seem  to  see  the 
"  golden  age  "  beginning  again.'  " 


OTHER    POINTS.  33 

b.    If  a  parenthetical  phrase  intervenes  between  parts  of  a 

quotation,  the  marks  are  placed  before  and  after  each 

part ;  as,  "  I  weep,"  said  he,  "  because  weeping  will 

not  help." 

2.   To  enclose  the  names  of  books,  magazines,  papers,  ships, 

engines,  and  the  like  ;  as,  "  Harper's  Weekly." 

When  such  names  are  written  in  italics  the  quotation  marks  are 
not  used. 

The  Apostrophe. 

The  apostrophe  is  used  :  — 

1.  To  denote  the  omission  of  one  or  more  letters  or  figures; 
as,  "  That  is  o'er."     "  The  war  of  '37." 

2.  To  form  the  possessive  case  ;  as,  "The  man's  hand."  "  For 
righteousness'  sake." 

3.  To  form  some  plurals;  as,  "Dot  your  t's."  "He  uses  too 
many  if's." 

Parentheses. 

Parentheses  are  used  :  — 

1.  To  enclose  some  incidental  remark  that  does  not  affect  the 
structure  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  I  told  him  (and  who  would  not?) 
just  what  I  thought." 

2.  To  enclose  anything  that  cannot  enter  into  the  sentence; 
as,  (hear,  hear). 

The  Hyphen. 

The  hyphen  is  used  :  — 

1.  To  join  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  ;  as,  "  Sense-construc- 
tions." 

2.  At  the  end  of  a  line  to  show  that  part  of  a  word  is  carried  to 
the  next  line. 

The  Caret. 

The  caret  is  used  to  show  that  a  word  or  words  are  omitted  ; 
as,  vvith 

"  He  came  along  _^  a  friend." 


34  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE   XIII. 

Punctuation, 

Direction.  —  In  the  following  sentences  insert,  where  required,  commas, 
exclamation  points,  interrogation  points,  apostrophes,  quotation  marks,  paren- 
theses, hyphens,  and  other  necessary  marks. 

1.  Of  Greece  Byron  says  vvhereer  we  tread  tis  holy  haunted 
ground. 

2.  Alas  said  I  man  was  made  to  mourn. 

3.  Fight  on  fight  on  said  he. 

4.  Thou  art  Freedoms  now  and  Fames, 

5.  He  said  it  oer  and  oer.  » 

6.  Let  me  go  sir  it  is  all  I  ask  said  he. 

7.  Believe  it  believe  it  yet  cried  Albert  grasping  his  friends 
hand. 

8.  Mrs  Sarah  said  I  I  couldnt  resist  coming  across  the  field. 

9.  It  is  for  you  to  determine  under  God  in  what  condition  pos- 
terity shall  be  born. 

10.  Expend  expense  tells  us  that  money  was  once  weighed  out 
Gen  xxxiii  16. 

11.  A  Chinese  work  contains  this  Fortune  tellers  rub  the  point 
of  a  needle  to  give  it  the  power  of  indicating  the  south. 

12.  They  are  apt  to  say  with  the  old  woman  of  Moliere  He 
speaks  so  well  that  I  dont  understand  him  a  bit. 

13.  Why  said  he  should  I  shun  the  name  of  an  an  he  hesitated 
for  a  phrase  an  out  of  doors  artist. 

14.  I  charge  you  said  he  to  take  away  that  man  meaning  the 
judge  in  the  red  gown. 

15.  Tomorrow  will  be  like  today, 

16.  He  did  he  did  cried  Sarah  Pecker. 

1 7.  Madge  Madge  what  have  ye  done  with  the  horse  was  asked 
by  the  men  without. 

18.  Saved  your  life  I  have  heard  that  story  said  the  lady. 

19.  Plague  on  thee  said  Bucklaw  interrupting  and  on  me  for 
listening  to  you. 


GENERAL  EXERCISE  ON  PUNCTUATION.         35 

20.  Read  no  farther  said  Deans  the  question  is  what  is  to  be  done. 

21.  O  Procrastination  exclaimed  the  hermit  thou  art  a  soul  mur- 
derer Unhappy  man  farewell  not  for  a  while  but  until  we  both 
shall  meet  no  matter  where. 

EXERCISE  XIV. 

Gener.'^l  Exercise  on  Punctuation. 

Direction.  —  Study  these  sentences  till  you  understand  their  construction, 
and  then  punctuate  them  in  accordance  with  the  rules  given  in  the  preceding 
lessons. 

1.  Deut  XX  21    2  Sam  xix  23    A  D  1890. 

2.  Bot  9  mos  credit  4  yds  3  qrs  at  12  cts  a  yd. 

3.  Habemus  confitentem  reiim  We  have  the  accused  one  con- 
fessing /  e  you  plead  guilty. 

4.  The  revolt  however  was  important. 

5.  Seeing  the  fertile  plains  of  Gaul  they  were  dissatisfied  with 
their  own  land. 

6.  The  hubbub  was  fearful  even  the  critics  took  fright. 

7.  And  what  conclusion  after  all  can  be  drawn  from  mere 
inferiority  ? 

8.  Byron  had  little  dramatic  talent  he  could  not  go  out  of 
himself. 

9.  The  weapons  of  a  Roman  soldier  were  of  two  kinds  ( i)  offen- 
sive weapons  (a)  the  javelin  (^)  the  sword  gladius  (2)  defensive 
weapons  {a)  a  brazen  helmet  {l?)  a  cuirass  {/)  greaves  {d)  a 
shield. 

10.  He  designated  the  greatest  man  then  living  as  that  reptile 
Mr  Burke. 

11.  That  resolution  was  indeed  unjust  but  till  it  was  rescinded 
could  the  minister  advise  the  king  to  bestow  any  mark  of  appro- 
bation on  the  person  censured. 

12.  O  thou  that  bringest  good  tidings  aid  me. 

13.  The  French  having  been  dispersed  in  a  gale  put  back  to 
Toulon. 


36  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

14.  Virtue  merit  everytliing  that  is  praiseworthy  will  be  made 
the  subject  of  ridicule. 

15.  With  all  his  faults  and  they  were  neither  few  nor  small  only 
one  cemetery  was  worthy  to  contain  his  remains. 

16.  So  came  the  autumn  and  passed  and  the  winter  yet  Gabriel 
came  not. 

17.  This  friend  of  humanity  says  When  I  consider  their  lives  I 
seem  to  see  the  golden  age  beginning  again. 

18.  The  double  value  it  will  be  noticed  is  obtained  in  the  same 
way. 

19.  He  was  carried  to  a  neighboring  house  where  it  appeared 
that  the  wound  though  severe  was  not  mortal. 

20.  The  authors  of  the  Act  had  estabhshed  two  independent 
powers  the  one  judicial  the  other  political. 

21.  Whatever  I  have  tried  to  do  in  life  I  have  tried  with  all 
my  heart  to  do  well  Whatever  I  have  devoted  myself  to  I  have 
devoted  myself  to  completely. 

22.  Oh  Rouen  she  said  v/hen  she  saw  the  lofty  scaffold. 

23.  Some  of  his  classmates  were  afterwards  men  of  note  e  g 
Abbott  the  historian  Pierce  the  politician  and  Cheever  the  preacher 
and  author. 

24.  Thence  in  February  1827  he  set  out  for  Spain  and  while  in 
Madrid  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Washington  Irving  then 
engaged  on  his  Life  of  Christopher  Columbus. 

25.  Let  the  quotients  and  remainders  be  denoted  by  the  letters 
in  the  margin  then  we  have  the  following  results  that  is  to  say  etc. 

26.  Each  Roman  citizen  had  usually  three  names  the  praenomen 
the  nomen  and  the  cognomen. 

27.  In  the  year  600  b  c  the  Greeks  of  Phocsea  in  Asia  Minor 
emigrated  and  settled  at  Massilia  now  Marseilles. 

28.  In  1843  the  year  of  his  second  marriage  he  published  a 
dramatic  poem  on  which  he  had  long  been  working  The  Spanish 
student. 

29.  How  Conrade  murdered  and  by  the  Grand  Master  his 
sponsor  and  most  intimate  friend  exclaimed  Richard. 


GENERAL  EXERCISE  ON  PUNCTUATION.         3/ 

30.  He  shortly  afterwards  took  up  his  residence  at  H  as  an 
inmate  of  the  household  of  the  Rev  Dr  N. 

31.  The  spirit  does  but  mean  the  breath     Tennyson. 

32.  Distraction  if  the  earth  could  swallow  me. 

^;^.    Tired  and  hungry  sick  and  sore  they  continued  their  march. 

34.  He  fell  over  the  cliff  down  down  down  into  that  awful 
abyss. 

35.  Listen  Listen  methinks  I  hear  that  dreadful  sound. 

36.  After  his  return  from  Germany  he  led  a  desultory  life  he  was 
in  London  Malta  and  Rome. 

37.  The  character  of  Coleridge  was  pecuhar  his  mind  was  active 
powerful  many-sided  in  politics  religion  metaphysics  poetry  and 
literary  criticism  he  thought  deeply  and  few  spoke  more  wisely  but 
of  all  he  thought  and  of  all  he  uttered  only  fragments  remain. 

38.  To  this  day  they  always  use  the  word  political  as  synony- 
mous with  diplomatic. 

39.  Pope  saw  in  the  Indian  only  an  object  of  compassion  Fen- 
nimore  Cooper  invested  him  with  some  dignity  and  other  virtues 
Longfellow  found  in  him  and  his  surroundings  material  for  poetry. 

40.  As  to  the  position  pursuits  and  connections  of  Junius  the 
following  are  the  most  important  facts  First  that  he  was  acquainted 
with  the  technical  forms  of  the  Secretary  of  States  office  secondly 
he  was  acquainted  with  the  business  of  the  war  office  thirdly  that 
he  during  the  year  1770  attended  debates  in  the  House  of  Lords' 
fourthly  that  he  bitterly  resented  the  appointment  of  Mr  Charnier 
fifthly  that  he  was  bound  by  some  strong  tie  to  the  first  Lord 
Holland. 

41.  Had  he  permitted  me  to  remain  quiet  I  should  have  said 
Tis  his  estate  thats  enough  It  is  his  by  law  what  have  I  to  do  with 
it  or  its  history?  He  would  naturally  have  said  on  his  side  Tis  this 
mans  fortune  He  is  as  good  now  as  my  ancestor  was  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years  ago. 


38  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


LESSON    X. 

STYLE. 

Style  is  the  manner  of  expression. 

Its  meclianical  elements  are  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs. 
As  these  may  be  dealt  with  in  an  infinite  variety  of  ways,  style  ig 
as  diversified  as  the  minds  that  produce  it ;  indeed,  more  so,  for 
the  same  person  may  vary  his  style  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
subject  with  which  he  is  dealing.  Besides,  every  writer  puts  his 
individuality  into  his  composition  and  thereby  gives  his  style  a 
peculiarity  of  its  own.  The  excellences  of  style,  so  far  at  least  as 
they  may  be  acquired,  depend  largely  on  a  judicious  and  cultured 
choice  of  words  and  on  the  correct  and  graceful  form  of  sentences 
and  paragraphs.  The  first  of  these  will  be  studied  under  the 
head  of  Diction,  and  the  latter  under  the  heads  of  Formation 
of  Sentences  and  Construction  of  Paragraphs. 

Importance.  —  To  be  able  to  clothe  one's  thoughts  in  appropri- 
ate words  is  an  accomplishment  that  every  young  person  should 
labor  to  possess.  Language  is  the  dress  in  which  the  mind  shows 
itself  to  the  outside  world  ;  and,  as  neat  and  seemly  clothing  ren- 
ders the  body  more  graceful,  so  choice  and  refined  speech  adorns 
and  beautifies  the  mind.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  person 
who  has  the  largest  stock  of  words  to  choose  from  will  be  able  to 
select  the  aptest  words  and  to  frame  the  happiest  expressions.  To 
every  person,  therefore,  who  wishes  to  become  either  a  speaker  or 
a  writer,  the  possession  of  a  pure  and  wide  vocabulary  and  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  exact  signification  of  words  is  of  the 
highest  importance. 

Means.  —  In  the  effort  to  attain  such  a  knowledge  and  com- 
mand of  language,  the  following  means  will  be  found  helpful :  — 

1 .  Listening  to  good  speakers. 

2.  Associating  with  people  of  culture. 

3.  Reading  the  best  authors. 


DICTION.  39 

4.  Translating  with  accuracy  from  other  languages. 

5.  Unwearied  reference  to  a  good  dictionary. 

6.  The  study  of  some  standard  work  on  synonyms. 

7.  The  study  of  etymology. 

8.  Employing  in  conversation  and  composition  the  vocabulary 
acquired. 


LESSON    XI. 
I.   DICTION. 

Diction  is  that  part  of  Style  which  deals  with  the  choice  and 
use  of  words. 

Its  Divisions.  —  For  the  purpose  of  systematic  study,  Diction 
may  be  considered  under  the  following  heads  :  i.  Purity ;  2,  Pro- 
priety ;  3.  Precision. 

Purity. 

Purity  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words,  forms,  and  construc- 
tions as  are  justified  by  the  practice  of  the  best  writers. 

Standard  of  Purity.  —  In  the  choice  of  language,  we  must  be 
guided  by  two  principles.  First,  we  must  select  such  words,  forms, 
and  constructions  as  are  familiar  to  the  great  body  of  educated 
people  ;  secondly,  we  must  employ  only  such  as  are  sanctioned  by 
good  usage,  —  that  is,  by  reputable,  national,  and  present  usage : 
reputable,  that  of  the  majority  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers,  as 
opposed  to  that  of  the  uncultivated ;  national,  as  opposed  to  local, 
professional,  or  foreign  ;  present,  as  opposed  to  obsolete  or  transient. 

Errors  in  Purity  may  be  dealt  with  under  :  ( i )  Violations  of 
Rhetorical  Purity,  (2)  Violations  of  Grammatical  Purity. 

Rhetorical  Purity  forbids  the  use  of  such  words,  constructions, 
and  forms  of  expression  as  are  foreign,  obsolete,  new,  or  low. 

Grammatical  Purity  demands  attention  to  the  established  rules 
of  Syntax. 


40  composition  and  rhetoric. 

Rhetorical  Purity. 

Foreign  words  that  are  not  fully  domesticated  should  be 
rejected,  when  it  is  possible  to  find  pure  English  words  that  ade- 
quately express  the  meaning.  Some  foreign  words  have  been  so 
long  in  use  that  they  have  become  familiar  to  ordinary  readers, 
while  others  express  the  idea  intended  more  accurately  than  any 
native  word.  They  are  such  as  en?iut,  nam  de  plume,  fiat,  ignora- 
mus, quo7'um,  incognito,  and  anathema.  Such  words  as  these  may 
be  used  sparingly,  but  many  of  the  words  that  are  found  in  news- 
papers and  other  corrupters  of  our  language  should  be  peremp- 
torily rejected.  Do  not  venture  to  use  such  words  as  emeute,poli- 
tesse,  dernier  ressort,  n'importe,  nous  verrous. 

Obsolete  words  are  such  as  were  once  current  in  the  language, 
but  are  now  fallen  into  disuse.  No  absolute  rule  can  be  given  to 
determine  when  a  word  has  become  so  far  obsolete  that  it  can  be 
no  longer  used  ;  but  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  when  words 
are  unintelligible  to  ordinary  readers,  the  only  safe  course  in  prose 
is  to  select  others  in  their  stead.  Such  words  as  erst,  whilom, 
wist,  behest,  and  irks,  add  dignity  to  poetic  diction,  but  in  prose 
are  to  be  carefully  eschewed. 

New  Words.  —  From  a  variety  of  sources  new  words  are  being 
continually  introduced  into  the  language.  Some  of  these,  such  as 
those  required  to  unfold  the  principles  of  a  new  science,  have  from 
the  first  a  recognized  standing ;  some,  being  used  only  in  conver- 
sation and  in  newspapers,  soon  disappear  forever,  while  others  rise 
to  respectability  and  become  thoroughly  established  in  the  lan- 
guage. The  rule  to  follow  in  regard  to  the  latter  class  is,  not  to 
use  them.  Do  not  say  deputize  for  commission,  effectuate  for  effect, 
eventuate  for  end. 

Low  Words.  —  There  is  a  large  class  of  words  that  are  much 
used  in  conversation,  and  that  are  continually  struggling  for  a 
place  in  the  written  language.  As  they  are  generally  brief,  and  fre- 
quently used,  they  are  felt  to  be  very  expressive.  This,  no  doubt, 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  m.any  of  them  have  risen  to  colloquial 


PURITY.  41 

respectability,  while  some  have  become  recognized  as  a  part  of  oui 
written  vocabulary,  e.g.  mob,  cab,  bus. 

Social  Meanings.  —  One  kind  of  slang  consists  in  using  thor- 
oughly established  words  with  a  "  social "  meaning.  Thus  people 
say  "jolly,"  "plucky,"  "dodge,"  and  such  like.  Others  fancy 
themselves  clever  when  they  speak  of  "  the  rosy,"  "  the  fragrant 
weed,"  or  "  the  governor,"  while  others  from  sheer  laziness,  that 
prevents  their  taking  the  trouble  to  select  the  right  word,  fall  into 
the  habit  of  using  some  slang  expression  in  a  great  variety  of 
meanings.  With  them  everything  is  "  immense,"  "  beastly," 
"stunning,"  "nasty,"  "jolly,"  "splendid,"  or  "just  lovely." 

Besides  these,  there  is  another  kind  of  slang  peculiar  to  almost 
every  business  or  profession.  The  student  is  "  plucked,"  the  busi- 
ness man  is  "  busted,"  and  the  tradesman  is  "  gone  up."  And 
when  any  of  them  die,  they  are  "  gone  aloft." 

How  to  Find  what  is  Good  Usage.  —  It  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  young  persons  can  know  whether  words  have  all  the  marks  of 
good  usage  or  not.  The  common  way  of  determining  is  to  refer 
to  the  dictionary.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  lexicographer  to  find  out 
these  points  and  to  record  them  for  our  guidance,  so  that  it  is 
customary  to  regard  all  words  found  in  the  dictionary  as  of  recog- 
nized authority,  unless  the  contrary  is  stated. 

A  barbarism  is  an  expression  the  use  of  which  violates  the  rule 
that  in  language  good  usage  is  reputable,  national,  and  present. 

A  solecism  is  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  Syntax. 

Divided  Usage.  —  As  the  usage  of  good  writers  is  not  by  any 
means  uniform,  no  one  of  them  is  to  be  followed  absolutely. 


42  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE   XV. 

Purity. 
Direction.  —  Correct  all  violations  of  Purity  in  the  following  sentences. 

Part  I. 

1.  He  succeeded  in  enthusing  the  company. 

2.  He  wired  him  as  soon  as  the  office  opened  in  the  morning. 

3.  The  demagogue  tendeth  more  to  words  than  to  works. 

4.  He  told  me  a  long  rigmarole  about  what  happened. 

5.  I  go  where  likes  me  best. 

6.  I  wot  not  which  to  admire  most,  his  dclicatcssc,  his  candid- 
ness,  or  his  amiableness. 

7.  Thou  needest  not  pretend  to  be  from  France,  for  thy  speech 
bcwrayeth  thee. 

8-   Any  one  can  see  with  half  an  eye  that  he  has  got  the  blues. 

9.  He  is  in  the  swim  with  the  other  politicians. 

10.  This  change  of  fortune  has  almost  transmogrified  him. 

11.  The  king  soon  found  reason  to  repent  him  of  provoking 
these  dangerous  enemies. 

12.  I  opine  that  any  gentleman  who  devotes  his  time  to  the 
beaux  arts  and  belles  lettres  enjoys  the  highest  agrhnenis  of  life. 

13.  He  remarked  en  passant  that  his  friend  had  much  esprit  de 
corps. 

14.  I  confess  that  I  was  unmitigatedly  disappointed  with  Mr. 
Proctor's  lecture  on  Tuesday  evening. 

15.  He  has  a  tendency  to  talk  nonsense  occasionally,  or  some- 
thing very  like  bbigiie. 

16.  They  have  taken  a  journey  out  West  for  the  purpose  of 
recuperating  their  health. 

1 7.  Several  circumstances  seem  to  militate  against  that  idea. 

18.  Everything  may  not  be  so  saturated  with  couleur  de  rose. 

19.  He  seems  to   be  a  Jiaiiini  scdnn/i  sort  of  a  mortal,  who 
takes  great  delight  in  doing  outre  things. 

20.  The  temptation  to  run  a  toll-gate  seems  to  be  irresistible 
to  a  bicycler. 


PURITY.  43 

21.  His  fatner  was  a  true  blue  Revolution  soldier,  and  his 
mother  a  sincere  Christian. 

2  2.  His  style  of  writing  was  such  as  to  enable  people  to  clearly 
understand  him. 

23.  These  rooms  are  generally  occupied  by  the  more  quiet 
inclined  of  the  travelling  public. 

24.  There  is  some  agitation  over  the  impracticable  character  of 
the  instruction  of  our  public  schools. 

Part  H. 

25.  The  three  months  are  passed,  and  Shylock  is  wild  for  the 
fulfilment  of  his  bond. 

26.  He  has  just  received  a  cablegram  informing  him  of  the 
death  of  his  friend. 

27.  Do  you  catch  on  to  his  meaning? 

28.  I  never  heard  such  a  lovely  singer  before. 

29.  He  gets  rattled  over  the  merest  trifles. 

30.  That  man  is  all  broken  up  on  works  of  ceramic  art. 

31.  The  people  of  the  Hebrew  persuasion  expect  to  return  to 
live  in  Palestine. 

32.  The  liquor  business  is  run  because  it  is  profitable. 

;^2.    Let  me  tell  you  su/>  rcsa  he  behaves  just  commc  ilfaut. 

34.  He  tries  to  bulldoze  the  House,  but  his  pretences  are  far 
too  thin. 

35.  That  will  not  go,  it  is  altogether  too  thin. 

36.  He  just  scraped  through  his  exam.,  and  he  is  in  for  making 
his  pile. 

37.  A  teacher  cannot  afford  to  experimentalize. 
2,^.    He  took  the  shibboleth  of  his  party. 

39.  When  he  got  to  that  town  he  found  himself  strapped. 

40.  He  was  somewhat  addicted  to  wrath  and  usquebaugh. 

41.  The  Society  intends  to  excurt  on  the  4th  of  July. 

42.  He  will  get  himself  into  a  fix  some  day. 

43.  They  have  determined  to  rendezvous  near  Qu'Ai)|)('ilc. 

44.  His  house  was  burglarized  the  day  after  he  sent  in  his 
declamature. 


44  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

45.  He  is  not  thoroughly  posted  on  that  subject. 

46.  I  am  greatly  beholden  to  you. 

47.  Having  acquired  the  savoir/aire,  he  is  never  afraid  of  mak- 
ing a  fa/ix  pas,  and  in  every  conversation  plunges  in  ttiedias  res. 

48.  The  fair  dcbiittante  is  on  the  look-out  for  //«  bo7i  parti,  but 
her  nez  retrousse  is  against  her. 

49.  She  is  accompanied  by  mamma  en  grande  toilette,  who, 
entre  nous,  looks  rather  ridce,  even  in  the  gas  light. 

EXERCISE  XVI. 

Purity. 

Direction.  —  Examine  each  word  and  determine  which  may  be  used  and 
which  should  be  rejected.  In  all  cases  of  doubt,  refer  to  some  standard 
dictionary. 

1.  Donate,  on  dit,  tapis,  siesta,  ungallantry,  confutant,  disillu- 
sioned, blaze,  soupQon,  imprimatur. 

2.  Buildress,  enthuse,  gent,  pant,  gubernatorial,  hydropathy, 
electropathy,  experimentaUze,  controversialist,  walkist. 

3.  Practitioner,  proven,  rehable,  disposable,  anchorable,  com- 
plainable,  unrepentable,  preventative,  casuality,  resurrected. 

4.  Incurable,  paragraphist,  agriculturist,  stabbist,  intercessed, 
flattress,  presidential,  multerosity,  role,  fabulosity. 

5.  Gallantness,  obloquy,  periculous,  moonrise,  docible,  ovate, 
memento,  n6e,  locate. 

6.  Soi-disant,  acrobat,  traducement,  kraal,  distingu^,  amende, 
amour-propre,  skedaddle,  opaque,  confutement. 

7.  Cablegram,  ivorytype,  credibleness,  ultimatum,  incertain, 
exonerableness,  persiflage,  parvenu,  verbatim,  atelier. 

8.  Misaffected,  fete,  plateau,  spirituel,  fauteuil,  confutant,  opti- 
graph,  employ^,  alibi,  saleslady. 

9.  Currentness,  impromptu,  patois,  fashionist,  jumpist,  matin, 
mulish,  prot^g^,  obedential,  dilettante. 

10.  Boycott,  Copperhead,  blue-stocking,  incog,  cablegram,  cute, 
educationalist,  suicided,  reportorial,  spec. 


GRAMMATICAL    PURITY.  45 

LESSON    XII. 

GRAMMATICAL   PURITY. —OF  NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS. 

1.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  subject  of  a  verb,  is  in  the  nom- 
inative ;  as,  "/am  "  ;  "This  persoti  is  one  wJio  can  be  trusted." 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  subjective  complement  of  a 
verb,  is  in  the  nominative ;  as,  "  He  is  the  inan  "  ;  "  It  is  //<?." 

But  when  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  as  an  objective  comple- 
ment, it  is  in  the  objective ;  as,  "They  appointed  him  marshal^ 

3.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  denoting  the  direct  or  indirect  object  of 
an  action,  or,  following  a  preposition,  is  in  the  objective  ;  as,  "  His 
teacher  gave ///;«  (indirect)  a.  book''  (direct). 

4.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  subject  of  an  infinitive,  is  in 
the  objective  ;  as,  "  I  believe  him  to  be  the  man." 

5.  A  noun,  used  to  denote  time,  value,  weight,  measure,  and 
the  like,  is  in  the  objective ;  as,  "  He  stayed  twenty  days'' 

6.  A  noun  or  pronoun  whose  case  does  not  depend  on  any 
other  word  is  in  the  nominative  absolute ;  as,  "  Our  work  being 
done,  we  retired." 

7.  A  noun  (or  pronoun),  used  in  apposition  to  another,  agrees 
with  the  latter  in  case  ;  as,  "  Washington,  the  first  President  of  the 
United  States." 

8.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  a  noun,  is  in  the  possessive 
case  ;  as,  "  A  man's  life  "  ;  "  His  hand." 

This  rule  applies  when  the  limited  noun  is  a  verbal,  simple,  or 
phrasal ;  as,  "  This  depends  on  your  obeying  the  order." 

When  several  nouns  qualify  the  same  noun,  only  the  last  takes 
the  possessive  form,  if  the  possession  is  common  ;  but  all  take 
it  if  the  possession  is  individual ;  as,  "  A,  B,  and  C's  shares  are  as 
6,  3,  9  "  is  evidently  wrong,  as  each  has  a  share.  It  should  read, 
"  A's,  B's,  and  C's  shares  are  as  6,  3,  9." 

For  the  sake  of  euphony,  the  s  after  the  apostrophe  is  sometimes 
omitted  ;  as,  "  For  righteousness'  sake." 


46  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

9.  Incomplete  verbs  take  the  same  case  after  them  as  before 
them  ;  as,  ''  I  supposed  it  to  be  him  "  ;  "I  supposed  that  it  was 
her 

OF  PRONOUNS. 

1.  A  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective  must  agree  in  gender, 
number,  and  person  witli  that  to  which  it  refers. 

In  the  case  of  the  relative  pronouns,  the  agreement  is  chiefly 
nominal. 

2.  When  a  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective  refers  to  a  collec- 
tive noun,  its  number  depends  on  the  sense  and  follows  the  num- 
ber of  the  verb;  as,  "This  class  seldom  know  their  lessons." 
"  This  class  is  working  its  way  through  Reduction." 

3.  A  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective  that  refers  to  a  noun 
qualified  by  many  a  is  singular  or  plural  according  to  the  sense  ; 
as,  "  Many  a  light  glimmered  for  a  time,  but  soon  they  all  became 
extinguished."  "  Many  a  flower  wastes  its  sweetness  on  the  desert 
air." 

4.  When  a  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective  refers  to  a  word 
that  embraces  both  genders,  it  may  be  plural ;  as,  "  Every  one 
enjoyed  themselves^ 

It  is  better,  however,  to  say,  "  All  enjoyed  themselves." 

5.  When  a  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective  refers  to  two  or 
more  singular  nouns  connected  by  and,  it  is  plural ;  as,  "  The  lady 
and  the  gentleman  left  their  seat." 

6.  When  the  nouns  are  taken  separately,  the  pronoun  or  pro- 
nominal adjective  is  singular;  as,  "  Neither  John  nor  James  saw 
his  opportunity." 

7.  When  the  nouns  are  of  different  genders  and  are  taken  sepa- 
rately, a  singular  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective  must  be  used 
for  each ;  as,  "  Such  a  course  is  a  benefit  to  any  boy  or  girl  in  any 
sphere  he  or  she  may  enter." 

Similarly  when  the  nouns  are  connected  by  and ;  thus,  "  Every 
young  man  and  woman  present  was  Qxv^oy'mg  himself  or  herself" 
(themselves?).      This   expression    is    awkward    and    should    be 


GRAMMATICAL    PURITY.  4;? 

avoided.  Say,  "  All  the  young  men  and  women  present  enjoyed 
themselves.^' 

When  a  relative  clause  is  descriptive,  it  is  introduced  by  tvho  or 
which. 

When  a  relative  clause  is  restrictive,  it  may  be  introduced  by 
that ;  but  there  is  usually  a  choice  between  who  or  which  am! 
that.  The  following  points  deserve  notice.  In  restrictive  clauses 
ivho  or  which  is  used,  — 

a.  When  the  antecedent  is  limited  by  that. 

b.  When  the  conjunction  that  occurs  in  close  proximity. 

c.  When  the  antecedent  is  a  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective. 

d.  After  a  preposition. 

e.  For  variety  when  there  are  two  or  more  relative  clauses. 
f.    When  the  relative  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  clause. 

EXERCISE   XVII. 

Nouns  and  Pronouns. 

Direction.  —  Correct  all  errors  in  the  Tollowing  sentences,  and  give  a 
reason  for  each  change. 

1.  They  asked  you  and  I  to  come. 

2.  Who  do  you  suppose  he  meant? 

3.  Is  there  any  prospect  of  the  Council  passing  such  a  bydaw  ? 

4.  He  was  prouder  of  nothing  than  of  wit  and  raillery,  but  he 
was  far  from  being  happy  in  it. 

5.  If  a  Pythogoras  or  a  Galileo  suffer  for  their  opinions  they 
are  martyrs. 

6.  Do  you  think  there  is  any  chance  of  me  finding  him  at  home? 

7.  If  any  person  wishes  employment  he  or  she  should  keep 
their  eyes  open. 

8.  About  three-sevenths  of  the  work  are  Ids  own. 

9.  That  is  the  man  whom  I  heard  was  ill. 

10.  Nothing  but  trials  and  disappointments  seem  to  await  me. 

11.  Mrs.  A.'s  compliments  to  Mrs.  B.,  and  I  should  like  if  you 
would  be  kind  enough  to  spend  an  evening  with  us. 


48  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

12.  Every  man  and  boy  showed  their  joy,  shouting  and  clap- 
ping their  hands. 

13.  Both  Cato  and  Cicero  loved  his  country. 

14.  Such  an  education  will  assist  every  boy  and  girl  in  any  call- 
ing they  may  choose. 

15.  There  is  more  likelihood  of  me  leaving  than  of  her. 

16.  He  felt  satisfied  that  it  was  me  or  her. 

1 7.  It  was  surely  not  us  who  was  suspected. 

iS.   The   whole    class   knows  its   lesson,  and   they  should  be 
praised  for  their  diligence. 

19.  Each  boy  and  girl  must  learn  their  lessons. 

20.  The  jury  are  considering  the  case  in  its  room. 

21.  When  he  shoots  a  partridge,  a  pigeon,  or  a  pheasant,  he 
gives  them  away. 

22.  Many  a  man  returns  home  with  less  than  they  went  away 
with. 

23.  The  army  went  to  its  barracks  and  soon  began  their  exer- 
cises. 

24.  Every   act   and    every   thought    has   their   effect   on   our 
character. 

25.  The  study  of  botany  is  a  benefit  to  any  boy  or  girl  in  any 
country  they  may  live. 

26.  That  is  the  best   part  of  beauty,  that  a  picture   cannot 
express. 

27.  In  the  twilight  it  seemed  to  be  her,  the  long-sought  child. 

28.  This  is  John,  Andrew,  and  Simon's  farm. 

29.  What  do  you  think  of  him  learning  so  rapidly? 

30.  Is  that  him?     No,  it  is  me. 

31.  O  Thou  who  touched  Isaiah's  lips  with  fire  ! 

32.  Many  a  man  squanders  money  when  they  are  young. 
2;^.   The  rest  must  have  been  as  glad  as  us  to  escape. 


GRAMMATICAL    PURITY.  49 

LESSON   XIII. 

OF  VERBS.  —  AGREEMENT. 

1.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 
Exceptions :  — 

a.  In  the  plural  there  is  no  change  of  form  ;  therefore  the 

agreement  is  only  nominal. 

b.  The  tendency  of  modern  English  is  to  make    the  verb 

follow  the  sense  of  the  subject  rather  than  the  form. 
Hence  words  that  are  plural  in  form,  but  that  denote  a 
single  object  or  idea,  take  a  verb  in  the  singular ;  thus, 
"Classics  is  my  delight." 

c.  Similarly  a  word  singular  in  form  takes  a  plural  verb  when 

it  denotes  plurality  of  idea ;  as,  "  The  crowd  were 
throwing  stones." 

The  verb  is  singular  if  the  objects  forming  the  whole 
are  to  be  thought  of  collectively ;  as,  "  The  crowd  zuas 
very  great." 

2.  Two  or  more  singular  nouns,  connected  by  and,  require  a 
rerb  in  the  plural. 

Exceptions.  — The  verb  is  singular  :  — 

a.  When  the  words  are  nearly  synonymous ;  as,  "  Wherein 

dotJi  sit  the  fear  and  dread  of  kings." 

b.  When  the  words  denote  a  unit  or  a  complete  object ;  as, 

"The  wheel  and  axle  is  a  mechanical  power." 

c.  Often  when  the  subjects  follow  the  verb. 

This  is  the  case  even  if  one  of  the  subjects  is  plural ; 
as, "  There  ivas  hurrying  to  and  fro  and  tears  and  trem- 
blings of  distress." 

d.  When  a  second  verb  may  be  understood  ;  as,  "  There  was 

racing  and  (there  was)  chasing  on  Cannobie  Lee." 

e.  When  the  nouns  are  connected  by  tvith,  the  verb  agrees 

with  the  first  noun  ;  as, "  The  man  with  his  family  is  gone." 


50  COMI'OSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

It  is  better,  however,  to  substitute  and  {oxwitJi  and  to 
make  the  verb  plural. 

/.  When  the  nouns  are  ([ualified  by  every,  the  verb  is  singu- 
lar;  as,  "  l'2very  leaf  and  twig  is  moving." 

g.  When  the  nouns  refer  to  a  single  olject,  the  verb  is  singu- 
lar; as,  "The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband /r^'vi'." 

h.  When  it  is  intended  to  give  special  prominence  to  one  of 
the  nouns,  the  verb  is  made  to  agree  with  it ;  as,  "  His 
time,  his  talent,  his  heart,  was  devoted  to  the  work." 

3.  If  a  singular  and  a  plural  noun  form  the  subject,  the  verb  is 
plural,  however  the  nouns  maybe  connected  ;  as,  "  The  captain  afid 
the  sailors  are  drowned  "  ;  "  Tlie  captain  <?r  the  sailors  are  drowned." 

This  rule  holds  also  for  pronouns  of  the  third  person. 
The  plural  noun  should  stand  next  the  verb. 

4.  When  there  is  an  afifirmativ^e  and  a  negative  subject,  the  verb 
agrees  with  the  former ;  as,  "  The  king,  not  his  soldiers,  is  su- 
preme." 

5.  When  the  nouns  are  connected  by  as  well  as  or  like,  the 
verb  usually  agrees  with  the  first  noun ;  as,  "  Hume,  as  well  sis 
Faraday,  was  a  man  of  virtue." 

6.  When  the  subject  of  a  verb  consists  of  pronouns  of  different 
persons  and  numbers,  connected  by  and,  the  verb  is  plural  and  of 
the  highest  person  mentioned  ;  as,  "  He,  you,  and  I  are  "  (first 
person)  ;  "  He  and  you  are  "  (second  person)  ;  "  He  and  she 
are  "  (third  person). 

7.  If  the  pronouns  are  connected  by  or,  the  verb  agrees  with 
the  pronoun  next  it ;  as,  "  He  or  thou  ar/  here." 

This  rule  and  the  ])receding  hold  if  a  noun  takes  the  place  of  one 
of  the  pronouns. 


GRAMMATICAL    PURITY.  5  I 

EXERCISE   XVIII. 

Verbs.  —  Acreement. 

DiRECI'ION.  —  Correct  tlie  emirs  in  tlie  fcjlluwing,  and  give  a  reason  for  each 
change. 

1.  She  was  one  of  th(;.sc  impulsive  natures  liiat  longs  for  a  con- 
fidant. 

2.  The  door  oC  one  cell  is  open  and  within  stantls  two  figures. 

3.  Wisdom  and  prudence  dwells  with  the  lowly. 

4.  The  meaning  of  words,  sentences,  and  ])hrases  are  taken  up 
in  the  class. 

5.  Neither  precept  nor  principle  are  so  forcible  as  habit. 

6.  One  of  the  plots  were  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  a  noble. 

7.  What  is  the  subordinate  subjects  of  these  paragraphs? 

8.  Avarice  is  one  of  the  passions  that  is  never  satisfied. 

9.  The  costliness  of  his  armor  and  apparel  are  seen  at  a  glance. 

10.  The  Frank,  king,  with  his  son  and  many  of  the  nobles,  were 
taken  prisoners. 

1 1 .  Profusion  as  well  as  parsimony  are  to  be  avoided. 

I  2.,  More  than  one  accident  has  happened  in  that  way. 

13.  The  news  of  his  defection  has  just  reached  us. 

14.  Truth  and  truth  only  are  worth  seeking  for  their  own  sakes. 

15.  I  and  my  ideal  is  nothing. 

16.  Either  the  young  man  or  his  guardians  has  done  wrong. 

17.  He  don't  know  that  his  brother  ain't  going  to  come. 

18.  The  news  that  come  from  the  seat  of  war  are  injuring  the 
general's  fame. 

19.  To  choose  words  judiciously  and  to  use  them  accurately  is 
highly  important  in  composing. 

20.  The  assembly,  one  by  one,  is  leaving  the  room. 

21.  Not  loud  talk,  but  strong  proofs,  bring  conviction. 

22.  He  or  she  or  thou  are  the  fortunate  one. 

23.  Iwery  bud  and  blossom  are  opening  wide. 

24.  He  and  she  is  a  loving  couple. 

25.  The  measles  are  going  the  rounds  this  spring. 


52  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XIV. 

OF  VERBS.  — MOODS. 

1.  The  indicative  mood  is  used  in  direct  statements,  and  in 
conditions  or  suppositions,  believed  or  admitted  by  tiie  speaker. 

2.  The  imperative  mood  is  used  in  commands,  entreaties,  and 
the  hke. 

3.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  :  — 

a.    In  expressing  suppositions  invoh'ing  futurity  ;  as,  "  I  will 

go  if  it  do  not  rain." 
d.    In  expressing  conditions  involving  futurity  or  uncertainty  ; 

as,  "  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him." 

c.  In  suppositions  contrary  to  the  known  fact ;  as,  ''  If  he 

ivere  here,  I  would  tell  him." 

d.  In  expressing  a  wish  ;  as,  "  O,  that  he  7vere  here." 

e.  In  the  present  and  past  tenses,  to  express  suppositions  or 

conditions  which  the  speaker  does  not  believe  or  does 

not  know  to  be  true ;  as,  "  If  he  were  to  say  so,  I 

would  not  beheve  him." 

If,  however,  in  such  cases  the  speaker  believes  the 

supposition,  or  if  he  wishes  to  admit  it,  he  uses  the 

indicative  ;  as,  "  If  he  7ijas  to  say  so,  I  would  believe 

him." 
/.    To  express  a  future  or  uncompleted  act  or  state ;  as, 

"  Thou  shalt  stone  him  with  stones  till  he  perish." 
g.    To  express  an  intention  not  yet  carried  out ;  as,  "  The 

sentence  of  the  court  is,  that  you  be  flogged." 

Of  Verbs.  —  Tenses. 

The  tenses  must  be  so  used  as  to  indicate  the  relative  time  of 
the  acts  or  states  expressed. 

Examples.  —  "I  thought  I  could  have  done  that  "  should  be  "  I 


GRAMMATICAL    PURITY.  53 

thought  I  coiild  do  that,"  because  the  thinking  took  place  before 
the  doing  and  coi/ld  have  expresses  a  time  more  remote  than  that 
which  is  expressed  by  thought. 

"As  I  nfv&x  saiu  one  before,  I  examined  it  with  care."  Saw 
should  be  had  seen,  as  the  seeing  took  place  before  the  exam- 
ining. 

The  past  perfect  tense  is  used  to  express  an  act  that  took  place 
before  another  act  that  also  took  place  in  past  time. 

'"'I  intended  to  have  bought  a  pair  of  new  gloves."  To  have 
bought  should  be  to  buy. 

Actions  that  take  place  at  the  same  time  must  be  expressed  by 
the  same  tense. 

Exceptions. —  i.  To  express  what  is  customary  or  always  true, 
the  present  tense  is  used  even  after  the  past ;  as,  "  The  science 
teacher  told  the  class  that  water  always  expands  when  \t  freezes.'" 

2.  After  when,  till,  as  soon  as,  etc.,  the  present  tense  is  used 
instead  of  the  future  or  future  perfect ;  as,  "  He  will  go  as  soon  as 
they  come"  i.e.  shall  come  or  shall  have  come.  The  going  is 
simultaneous  with  the  coming  or  subsequent  to  it. 

Interchange  of  Tenses.  —  One  tense  is  sometimes  used  where 
the  strict  rule  would  call  for  another.     Thus  :  — 

1.  The  present  for  the  past  in  vivid  narration;    as,  "  Csesar 

crosses  the  Rubicon,  enters  Rome." 

2.  The  present  for  the  future  ;  as,  "  Duncan  comes  to-night." 

EXERCISE  XIX. 

Verbs.  —  Mood  and  Tense. 
Direction.  —  Correct  all  errors  in  the  following,  and  give  reasons. 

1.  I  intended  to  have  written  on  Saturday. 

2.  It  is  now  four  hundred  years  since  printing  has  been  in- 
vented. 

3.  I  thought  I  should  have  finished  before  ten  o'clock. 

4.  If  he  was  my  son  I  should  be  proud  of  him. 

5.  If  I  was  he  I  should  be  ashamed  to  go  there  again. 


54  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

6.  My  horse  has  been  bhstered  on  the  shoulder  about  three 
weeks  ago. 

7.  Did  not  the  doctor  say  that  bad  water  was  the  cause  of 
many  epidemics  ? 

8.  Plato  was  of  opinion  that  man  was  immortal. 

9.  He  wished  to  have  gone  weeks  before. 

10.  The  old  man  maintained  that  honesty  was  the  best  policy. 

11.  If  I  was  sure  of  finding  her,  I  would  go  at  once. 

12.  Was  there  no  other  cause  than  the  safety  of  that  faithful 
knave,  Wamba,  I  would  jeopard  a  point  ere  a  hair  of  his  head  was 
hurt. 

13.  If  she  was  to  come,  I  would  go  with  her. 

14.  If  I  was  sure  of  what  you  tell  me,  I  should  feel  at  rest. 

15.  If  I  am  ready  in  time,  I  will  call  for  you. 

16.  Take  heed  lest  at  any  time  your  hearts  are  overcharged 
with  surfeiting. 

17.  If  the  mail  was  in  now,  I  could  give  you  a  decided  answer. 

18.  He  said  the  sun  went  round  the  earth  once  every  twenty- 
four  hours. 

19.  I  thought  that  he  was  to  have  come  to-day, 

20.  If  that  be  lie,  he  has  an  unusual  appearance. 

21.  I  will  stay  here  till  he  shall  come  back. 

22.  If  he  has  a  horse  he  will  be  your  guide. 

23.  He  laughed  nearly  all  day  to-day. 

24.  I  have  failed  in  that  scheme,  though  I  felt  sure  I  should 
have  succeeded. 

25.  The  family  with  whom  he  has  lodged  some  months  ago, 
moved  to  Dakota  last  week. 

26.  He  must  reign  till  he  has  put  all  enemies  under  his  feet. 

27.  If  I  was  able  to  speak,  I  would  never  hold  my  peace. 

28.  If  he  was  in  the  city  when  I  was,  I  should  have  met  him. 

29.  He  said  that  water  was  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 

30.  If  he  was  younger,  he  would  study  medicine. 


GRAMMATICAL    PURITY.  55 

LESSON    XV. 

OF   VERBS.  — AUXILIARIES. 

The  auxiliaries  must  be  used  in  their  exact  signification. 

Must  expresses  compulsion  resting  on  its  subject. 

Caji  expresses  power  in  its  subject. 

May  expresses  possibility,  probability  ;  also,  permission  granted 
to  its  subject. 

Could 2sA  mighthaxt  the  same  general  distinction  as  can  and  may. 

Might  expresses  possibility  or  past  permission. 

Could  expresses  power  as  the  past  of  can  ;  also  present  condi- 
tional power. 

Shall  expresses  futurity  and  the  subjection  of  its  subject  to  for- 
eign control ;  will  expresses  futurity  and  the  power  of  its  subject 
to  control  the  act. 

Will  in  the  first  person  denotes  the  resolution,  purpose,  or 
promise  of  its  subject ;  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  it  denotes 
chiefly  futurity ;  shall  in  the  first  person  denotes  futurity ;  in  the 
second  and  third  persons  it  denotes  obligation,  arising  from  the 
will  of  the  speaker  or  from  some  other  power  beyond  the  subject. 

Should  and  would  (oWow  the  general  uses  oi  shall  and  will. 

Should  and  would  have  some  special  uses,  e.g.  to  express  moral 
obligation  ;  as,  "  You  should  obey  the  laws  of  virtue  "  ;  —  to  indi- 
cate a  modest  expression  of  opinion  ;  as,  "  I  should  Xkivc^  so  "  ;  —  to 
express  future  possibility  ;  as,  "  If  he  should  attempt  to  break  that 
itone,  he  will  fail  "  ;  —  to  express  a  wish  ;  as,  "  Would  that  the  day 
were  over  "  ;  - —  to  express  what  was  customary  ;  as,  "  He  icould 
walk  up  anil  down  his  room  all  day  "  ;  —  to  express  fixed  purpose  ; 
as,  "  He  would  have  his  way." 

Of    MhNOR    POLNTS. 

I.  The  adjective  pronouns  this  and  that  agree  in  number  with 
what  they  limit  or  represent;  thus,  "That  kind,"  not  "Those 
kind  "  ;  "  That  will  do,"  "  Those  will  do." 


56  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

2.  The  past  tense  and  past  participle  must  not  be  confused. 
Do  not  say,  "  I  done  my  best,"  but,  "  I  did  my  best." 

3.  The  part  of  a  verb  that  differs  in  form  from  the  part  ex- 
pressed, must  not  be  omitted ;  thus,  associate  must  be  expressed 
in  "They  do  not  (associate),  and  never  have  associated,  with  such 
persons." 

4.  In  comparison,  use  the  comparative  when  two  objects  are 
compared,  and  the  superlative  when  more  than  two.  Thus,  "This 
is  the  better  of  the  two  "  ;  "  This  is  the  best  of  all." 

5.  When  two  adjectives  qualify  the  same  singular  noun,  the 
following  arrangements  are  found :  "  The  old  and  new  books 
are  .  .  .";  "The  old  and  the  new  book  are  .  .  .";  "The  old 
book  and  the  new  book  are  ..."  The  first  is  ambiguous ;  the 
last  is  the  best. 

6.  The  use  of  adjectives  and  adverbs  must  be  carefully  discrim- 
inated. Usually  adjectives  express  a  quality  and  adverbs  express 
manner,  degree,  etc.  Some  words  in  the  adjective  form  are  used 
with  the  power  of  an  adverbial  adjective ;  as,  "  He  stood  firmT 
There  is  a  nice  distinction  between  this  and  "  He  stood  finnly^ 

7.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  should  not  be  separated  from 
its  verb. 

To  is  omitted  after  the  auxiliaries,  after  bid,  dare,  need,  see,  feel, 
make,  let,  hear,  and  sometimes  after  a  few  other  verbs. 

EXERCISE  XX. 

Verbs.  —  Auxiliaries  and  Other  Minor  Points. 

Direction.  —  Give  a  reason  for  changing  the  auxiliary  in  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing. 

1.  I  would  not  like  to  do  it  and  I  shall  not. 

2.  The  genius  told  me  I  would  not  reach  those  beautiful  islands 
till  I  would  die. 

3.  Will  I  help  you,  or  shall  you  do  it  alone? 

4.  I  fear  I  will  not  be  able  to  pass  my  examination. 

5.  Can  I  have  the  pleasure  of  helping  you? 


GRAMMATICAL    PURITY.  57 

6.  I  would  be  astonished  if  he  went  to  church. 

7.  If  he  would  not  succeed,  then  I  would  be  the  loser. 

8.  It  is  now  high  time  that  we  would  return. 

9.  If  you  refuse  medicine  in  health,  it  shall  be  too  strong  for 
your  body  when  you  will  need  it. 

10.  You  shall  get  into  trouble  if  you  pursue  that  course. 

Direction.  —  Distinguish  the  meaning  of  the  following. 

a.  I  must  (should,  ought  to)  attend  in  person. 

b.  I  could  (might)  not  wonder  at  his  conduct. 

c.  He  declared  he  would  (should)  go  home. 

d.  He  did  as  I  would  (should)  have  done. 

e.  I  thought  I  would  (should)  speak  my  mind. 
/.    I  should  (would)  go  if  he  came. 

g.   I  will  (shall)  be  obliged  to  leave  to-day. 

h.  I  will  (shall)  live  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  forever. 

/.    I  would  (should)  take  part  if  I  could. 

J.    He  may  (can)  walk  a  mile. 

k.  You  may  (can)  be  happy. 

/.  Thou  shalt  (wilt)  endure  and  thy  years  shall  (will)  not 
change. 

m.  May  (can)  I  have  the  pleasure  of  helping  you? 

;/.  I  can  (may)  not  call  riches  better  than  the  baggage  of 
virtue. 

Direction.  —  Correct  errors  in  the  following.     Give  reasons  for  changes. 

1.  She  will  not  wear  those  kind  of  gloves. 

2.  He  had  spoke  an  hour  before  the  audience  seen  the  drift  of 
his  discourse. 

3.  The  weary  traveller  saw  the  sun  to  set. 

4.  Those  apples  taste  sweetly. 

5.  Wisdom  bids  us  to  hearken  to  that  voice. 

6.  He  has  abstained  from  food  this  two  days. 

7.  A  divine  and  human  law-giver  seeks  to  accomplish  different 
purposes. 


58  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

8.  Of  those  two  oaks  the  oldest  is  the  shortest. 

9.  The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides  has  been  accounted  for. 
10.   The  rogue  and  fool  by  fits  is  fair  and  wise. 

EXERCISE  XXI. 

Direction.  —  Point  out  the  violations  of  grammatical  purity  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences,  state  wherein  each  consists,  correct,  and  give  the  reason. 

Part  I. 

1.  The  syntax  and  etymology  of  the  language  is  thus  placed 
before  the  learner. 

2.  He  or  you  is  in  the  way. 

3.  The  idea  of  me  being  president  seems  utterly  ridiculous. 

4.  The  people  was  divided. 

5.  Bread  and  milk  are  good  food  for  children. 

6.  More  than  one  has  had  a  hand  in  that  affair. 

7.  I  gave  the  book  to  Mary,  she  who  wears  the  white  hat. 

8.  Both  money  and  labor  was  spent  on  it. 

9.  He  said  he  would  give  it  to  whomsoever  could   solve  the 
question. 

10.  He  told  us  there  was  two   principal  propositions  in  the 
sentence. 

1 1.  The  fleet  was  under  orders  to  sail. 

12.  I  intended  to  have  written  it  on  Saturday. 

13.  Every  one  of  the   persons  who   have  pews  in  his  church 
have  concurred. 

14.  It  must,  indeed,  be  confessed  that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  do 
not  carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder. 

15.  In  olden  times  hanging  and  beheading  were  the  punish- 
ments of  high  treason. 

16.  Each  of  these   circumstances  being  impressed  upon  the 
composer's  mind  tend  to  improve  the  performance. 

1 7.  Give  the  book  to  Smith,  he  that  is  sitting  by  the  window. 

18.  I  wish  you  would  come  with  my  sister  and  I. 


GRAMMATICAL    PURITY.  59 

19.  If  a  piece  of  iron  or  glass  be  heated  to  the  same  degree, 
they  communicate  to  the  hand  a  very  different  sensation. 

20.  The  officer  has  power  of  detention  over  even  those  whom 
he  knows  will  get  intoxicated. 

Part    IL 

21.  One,  if  not  more,  of  these  proprietors  hold  land  in  large 
quantities,  buying  it  before  the  land  Act  was  passed. 

22.  Every  one  must  follow  their  own  views  on  the  question. 

23.  Every  religious  association  has  an  undoubted  right  to  form 
a  creed  for  themselves. 

24.  It  must  be  confessed  that  this  is  none  of  those  turbulent 
pleasures  which  is  apt  to  gratify  a  man  in  the  heats  of  youth. 

25.  He  goes  after  what  he  has  lost  till  he  finds  it. 

26.  I  must  observe  that  there  are  a  set  of  merry  drolls  whom  the 
common  people  of  every  country  admires. 

27.  Every  emotion  and   every  operation  of  the  mind  have  a 
corresponding  expression  of  the  countenance. 

28.  If  the  donor  was  rich,  the  present  was  too  little  ;  if  he  were 
poor,  it  was  too  much. 

29.  Neither  my  brother  nor  I  were  able  to  endure  it  any  longer. 

30.  If  he  was  here,  he  would  open  the  box. 

31.  This  is  just  as  if  an  eye  or  a  foot  should  demand  a  salary 
for  their  services  to  the  body. 

32.  Providence,  and  not  pomp,  are  the  basis  of  his  fame. 
^^.    Three-quarters  of  the  lake  are  shallow. 

34.  It  is  as  cold,  if  not  colder,  than  any  day  this  year. 

35.  Profusion  as  well  as  parsimony  are  to  be  avoided. 

36.  There  is  no  use  in  me  trying  the  examination. 

37.  If  he  does  come,  I  will  be  ready. 

38.  He  is  the  smallest  of  the  pair. 

39.  No  professional  man,  no  business  man,  in  fact  no  man  of 
sense  would  risk  their  reputation  by  supporting  such  a  cause. 

40.  My  friend  and  companion  have  often  warned  me  of  the 
danger. 


60  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Part  III. 

41.  In  the  meantime,  I  will  have  to  take  the  case  as  it  stands. 

42.  Will  I  find  you  at  home  this  evening? 

43.  If  I  stayed  there  I  would  offend  the  archbishop. 

44.  A  few  inches  more  or  less  in  a  lady's  height  makes  a  great 
difference. 

45.  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  the  proprietor  of  the  hotel  has 
not  told  all  he  knew. 

46.  If  he  was  to  find  out  that  it  was  me  who  wrote  it,  he  would 
be  very  angry. 

47.  'Twas  Love's  mistake  who  fancied  what  it  feared. 

48.  The  tidings  of  his  return  give  joy. 

49.  No  office  in  the  church,  no  preferment  in  the  state,  but  go 
to  the  king's  friends. 

50.  If  we  act  thus,  we  will  be   miserable  ourselves  and  will 
make  others  miserable. 

51.  I  will  now  accept  your  kind  invitation. 

52.  Every  grape-vine  and  fig-tree  are  stripped  of  their  foliage. 

53.  A  person  can  rest  as  well  in  a  parlor  car  as  they  could  in 
their  own  parlor. 

54.  He  works  as  if  his  life  depended  on  him  attaining  the 
position. 

55.  Addison  thought  that  a  person  was  bound  to  be  cheerful. 

56.  There  is  in  this  country  but  few  young  persons  who  may 
not  attend  school. 

57.  Every  boy  and  girl  should  avail  themselves  of  any  oppor- 
tunity to  get  an  education. 

58.  Your  challenge  should  soon  be  answered  if  your  antagonist 
was  here. 

59.  If  Ivanhoe  ever  return  from  Palestine,  I  shall  be  his  surety 
that  he  meet  you. 

60.  The  carefully  kept  memoranda  shows  that  physics  are  rapidly 
becoming  a  popular  study. 


GRAMMATICAL    PURITY.  6l 

Part  IV. 

6i.    Every  train  and  boat  were  crowded  on  civic  holiday. 

62.  Either  you  or  I  are  the  one  who  they  have  selected. 

63.  The  ashes  was  taken  out  of  the  grate. 

64.  The  measles  are  very  prevalent  at  this  season. 

65.  Each  of  these  courses  have  their  own  special  difficulties. 

66.  If  a  man  was  to  come  back  who  had  lived  a  hundred  years 
ago,  should  he  not  think  the  world  was  going  crazy. 

67.  Every  subordinate  clause  may  be  modified  as  if  it  was  a 
principal  clause. 

68.  For  in  cheerfulness  the  spirits  does  a  little  go  and  come. 

69.  The  captain,  with  many  of  the    crew,  were    lost   in    the 
storm. 

70.  He  reached  the  end  of  his  journey  half  an  hour  earlier  than 
he  expected. 

71.  If  ye  from  your  hearts  forgive  not  every  one  his  brother 
their  trespasses. 

72.  He  said  the  Mississippi  ran  through  the  United  States. 

73.  If  he  was  now  living,  he  would  have  sufficient  judgment  to 
wish  to  be  shown  as  he  was. 

74.  The  sunshine  and  rain  is  making  the  flowers  open. 

75.  It  is  evident  that  large  pile  of  icebergs  are  sailing  around 
in  the  Atlantic. 

76.  The  generality  of  his  hearers  refuses  to  accept  his  views. 

77.  A  considerable  number  were  inclined  to  withdraw  its  sup- 
port. 

78.  Did  you  ever  hear  what  that  man's  name  was? 

79.  To  instruct  and  preserve  society  are  one  of  the  designs  of 
the  Christian  religion. 

80.  He  supported  those  whom  he  thought  supported  him. 


62  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Part  V. 

8i.  They  said  he  had  went  away  and  broke  his  pledge  ;  at  any 
rate  he  drunk  several  glasses  and  begun  to  stagger  in  his  gait. 

82.    I  shall  have  great  pleasure  in  accepting  your  invitation. 

8^.  When  he  died,  his  son  and  namesake  and  successor  were  an 
infant. 

84.  Oxygen  and  nitrogen  united,  forms  the  air  we  breathe. 

85.  One  half  of  men  do  not  know  how  the  other  half  lives. 

86.  "  Don't  cry  about  it,"  said  Midas,  that  was  ashamed  to 
confess  that  he  himself  had  wrought  the  change  that  afflicted  her. 

87.  He  was  sure  that  the  objects  that  he  had  been  watching 
was  only  cattle. 

88.  He  would  have  done  a  great  deal  better,  if  he  took  a  dif- 
ferent course. 

89.  Her  knights,  her  dames,  her  court  were  there. 

90.  There  are  many  that  can  testify  that  that  man  was  not 
there. 

91.  Each  of  the  members  of  the  committee  made  their  report. 

92.  The  moral  and  religious  element  of  the  community  were 
aroused. 

93.  I  have  examined  both  the  methods  and  believe  the  first  to 
be  the  best. 

94.  The  report  of  the  mayor  and  clerk  were  presented. 

95.  News  were  sent  that  the  gallows  were  erected. 

96.  The  traveller  did  not  feel  well,  yet  he  ate  a  hearty  meal. 

97.  My  friend  and  companion  have  often  warned  me  of  the 
danger. 

98.  Praise  from  a  friend  or  censure  from  a  foe  are  lost  on 
hearers  who  know  our  merits. 

99.  The  last  month  or  two  has  been  spent  among  the  islands. 

1 00.  Hoping  that  I  will  hear  from  you  as  soon  as  convenient,  I 
will  subscribe  myself,  Yours  truly. 


PROPRIETY.  63 

LESSON    XVI. 

PROPRIETY. 

Propriety  consists  in  using  words  in  the  sense  they  bear  in  the 
usage  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers. 

Importance  of  Propriety.  —  If  a  writer  or  speaker  does  not 
use  a  word  as  it  is  understood  by  the  reader  or  listener,  he 
cannot  convey  the  meaning  he  intends,  or,  if  he  does,  it  will  be 
because  his  reader  or  hstener  has,  from  the  context,  seen  the 
intended  meaning  and  mentally  substituted  the  correct  word. 
Hence  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  words  should  be  used 
in  their  general,  well-understood,  and  established  sense.  To  be 
able  to  do  this  requires  time  and  patient  toil,  and  he  who  is 
unwilling  to  accept  the  task  on  these  terms  may  never  hope  to 
succeed  either  in  writing  correctly  or  in  understanding  his  own 
language. 

Impropriety.  —  The  application  of  a  word  in  a  sense  not 
authorized  by  good  usage,  is  called  Impropriety. 

Examples.  —  A  few  examples  are  given  to  illustrate  more  fully 
what  is  to  be  avoided  and  what  is  to  be  attained. 

Predicate  (Latin  predicare,  to  publish  or  state)  means  simply 
to  affirm  in  regard  to  something  that  already  is,  but  it  is  fre- 
quently found  in  the  sense  of  "  foretell  "  or  "  predict  "  ;  as,  "It  is 
impossible  to  predicate  what  he  will  or  will  not  do." 

Expect  is  very  widely  used  in  the  sense  of  suppose,  think,  guess  ; 
as,  "  I  expect  you  had  much  trouble  on  that  occasion."  Expect 
refers  only  to  that  which  is  to  come,  and  which,  therefore,  is 
looked  for  {^ex,  out,  and  spectare,  to  look).  We  cannot  expect 
backwards. 

Adopt  is  often  used  for  "  decide  upon,"  and  for  "  to  take  "  ;  as, 
"The  measures  adopted,  as  the  result  of  his  inquiry,  will  be 
productive  of  good." 

Caption  is  derived  from  Latin  capere,  to  take,  not  from  caput, 


64  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

the  head.  Hence  it  means  seizure,  or  the  act  of  taking,  not 
heading. 

Appreciate  (from  ap,  to,  ViwA  prctium,  price),  means  to  estimate 
justly.  Hence  we  cannot  say,  "  I  appreciate  your  kindness 
highly.^' 

Demeati  is  not  from  mean,  low,  but  from  the  French  demener. 
to  conduct  one's  self. 

Restive.  This  word,  which  means  inclined  to  rest,  obstinate, 
unwilling  to  go,  is  frequently  employed  in  a  sense  directly  the 
reverse  of  this  ;  that  is,  for  uneasy,  restless. 

Avocation  is  often  used  for  vocation,  or  calling.  A  man's 
avocations  are  those  pursuits  or  amusements  which  engage  his 
attention  when  he  is  called  away  from  his  regular  business  or  pro- 
fession, as  .music,  fishing,  or  boating. 

Rendition  is  sometimes  used  for  rendering ;  as,  "  Mr.  Booth's 
rendition  of  Hamlet."  Rendition  means  surrender,  giving  up; 
as,  when  we  speak  of  the  rendition  of  a  beleagured  town  to  the 
besieger. 

Condign  is  from  con,  and  dignus,  worthy,  and  signifies  deserved 
or  merited.  Many  who  use  it  seem  to  think  it  means  severe;  as, 
"The  villain  received  condign  punishment." 

Quite  means  etitirely,  completely,  a  fact  that  is  lost  sight  of  when 
it  is  placed  before  a  noun ;  as,  "  They  collected  quite  a  sum." 

Witness  (A.S.  witnesse,  knowledge)  is  to  bear  testimony  of 
what  one  knows  by  personal  observation.  We  should  not  say, 
"I  never  witnessed  such  a  lovely  day." 

Pell-mell  implies  a  number  in  confusion ;  so  it  is  absurd  to  say 
of  one  person,  "  He  rushed  out  pell-mell." 

Get  means  to  obtain  by  a  voluntary  effort.  We  should  not  say, 
"  I  have  got  a  cold,"  or  "  I  have  got  a  house  to  sell." 

Alternative.  An  alternative  is  one  choice  out  of  two  (Latin, 
alter,  one  of  two) . 

Female  should  not  be  used  for  woman  or  lady. 

Allow  is  to  give  by  measure  or  in  due  proportion.  A  father 
allows  his  son  a  reasonable  amount  of  spending  money.     Such 


PROPRIETY.  65 

uses  of  the  word  as,  "  He  allows  he  can  defeat  his  opponent,"  are 
mere  vulgarisms. 

Balance  (Latin,  bilancem,  scales)  denotes  equilibrium.  It 
should,  therefore,  not  be  used  for  remainder. 

Citizen.  It  is  proper  to  call  a  person  a  citizen  when  he  is 
spoken  of  in  relation  to  the  state,  but  improper  when  in  relation 
to  his  fellow-men ;  as,  "  Some  citizens  behaved  badly  on  show 
day." 

Aggravate  (Latin,  aggravare,  to  make  worse)  means  to  make 
worse.     It  is  often  improperly  used  for  vex  or  annoy. 

Transpire  should  not  be  used  for  happen. 

Eliminate  means  literally  to  throiv  out  of  doors.  Hence  it 
should  not  be  used  for  elicit  or  draw  forth. 

Extend  is  to  increase  in  one  or  all  directions,  to  stretch  out. 
So  we  should  not  say,  "  Extend  an  invitation." 

Replace.  Literally,  we  can  replace  only  that  which  was  pre- 
viously in  its  place ;  but  such  expressions  as,  "  He  can  never  hope 
to  replace  so  eminent  a  man"  seem  to  have  obtained  a  strong 
foothold  in  the  language. 

Dock  should  be  distinguished  from  wharf.  A  dock  is  usually 
an  excavation,  while  a  wharf  x^  an  elevation. 

Plenty  is  often  wrongly  construed  as  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  Money 
is  plenty  this  year." 

Mistaken.  To  mistake  is  to  take  wrongly,  so  to  he  7nis taken 
should  mean  to  be  taken  by  error  for  some  one  else.  Say,  "  You 
are  in  error,"  not,  "  You  are  mistaken." 

To  a  degree  is  sometimes  used  where  exceedingly  would  be  the 
proper  word. 

At  length  should  not  be  used  for  at  last.  At  length  means  fully  ; 
at  last,  finally. 

A^ice  is  now  one  of  those  "  social "  adjectives  that  are  used  for 
almost  any  quality  that  pleases  the  speaker.  Its  correct  meaning 
is  delicate  and  exact. 

Description  should  not  be  used  for  kind  or  sort. 

Words  similar  in  form  or  derivation  are   often  mistaken;  as. 


^  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

"  contemptuous  "  for  *'  contemptible  "  ;  "  exceptionable  "  for  "  ex- 
ceptional "  ;  "respectfully"  for  "respectively"  ;  "observation" 
for  "  observance  "  ;  "  purpose  "  for  "  propose." 

EXERCISE  XXII. 

Propriety. 

Direction.  —  Point  out  the  word  that  is  not  properly  used,  supply  tha 
correct  word,  and  give  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  rejected  word. 

Part  I. 

1.  His  conduct  aggravates  me  continually. 

2.  Her  sister  has  got  a  very  severe  attack  of  fever. 

3.  Directly  he  heard  the  alarm  he  rushed  out  pell-mell. 

4.  Johnson  died  from  blows  administered  by  a  policeman. 

5.  The  measures  adopted  by  the  House  will  do  good. 

6.  He  allows  that  he  has  the  finest  horse  in  the  country. 

7.  This  road  will  serve  to  convene  the  public. 

8.  A  great  amount  of  perfection  has  been  attained  in  that  art. 

9.  He  was  unwilling  to  demean  himself  by  a  public  apology. 

10.  The  alternatives  set  before  him  were,  to  abjure  the  faith,  to 
submit  to  the  torture,  or  to  go  into  perpetual  exile. 

11.  He  had  exceptionable  opportunities  for  learning  the  lan- 
guage. 

12.  The  troops,  though  fighting  bravely,  were  terribly  deci- 
mated, nearly  half  of  them  having  fallen. 

13.  I  have  sat  and  heard  him  tell  any  amount  of  anecdotes. 

14.  I  have  always  considered  him  an  honest  man. 

15.  "  Sir,"  said  he  to  Dr.  Parr,  "  I  have  a  contemptible  opinion 
of  you."  "  That  does  not  surprise  me,"  replied  the  Doctor  ;  "  all 
your  opinions  are  contemptible." 

16.  We  have  travelled  quite  a  piece  to-day. 

17.  A  century  transpired  before  it  was  revisited. 

18.  We  had  a  nice  time  yesterday  ;  the  weather  was  nice,  the 
company  was  nice,  and  everything  went  off  nice. 


PROPRIETY.  67 

19.  Peaches  are  very  plenty  this  season. 

20.  I  have  every  confidence  that  he  will  turn  out  well. 

21.  I  expect  you  have  had  a  great  many  difficulties. 

22.  His  manner  is  calculated  to  hinder  his  business. 

23.  A  vessel  of  this  description  had  been  hovering  in  sight. 

24.  He  aims  at  eliminating  truth  from  spirit,  fact  and  duty  from 
f-mth. 

25.  The  elevation  of  100  feet  eliminated  a  hearty  cheer. 

26.  It  also  looks  to  the  final  elimination  of  the  soul  from  the 
body. 

27.  When  the  boat  came  ashore,  it  contained  only  one  female. 

28.  Can  we  suppose  that  good  blood  replaces  teaching? 

29.  I  declare  this  is  the  most  splendid  bay  I  ever  witnessed. 

30.  They  followed  the  ancient  avocation  of  picking  pockets. 

Part  H. 

31.  He  is  fond  of  reading  such  fictitious  writers  as  Hawthorne. 

32.  A  young  man  abortively  seized  two  pieces  of  alpaca. 

33.  A  lady  having  two  boys,  would  like  to  adopt  one. 

34.  A  society  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals,  has  lately 
been  inaugurated. 

35.  A  great  part  of  the  congregation  went  home  at  ten  o'clock, 
but  the  balance  remained  till  twelve. 

36.  She  has  several  other  little  poems  of  a  much  higher  calibre. 

37.  There  is  an  article  in  the  last  issue  of  our  contemporary 
under  the  above  caption. 

38.  Several  citizens  carried  the  sufferer  to  a  drug  store  on  the 
next  block. 

39.  The  marriage  was  happily  consummated  at  Paris  last  April. 

40.  The  Mosque  in  Eastern  lands  must  go,  and  the  Christian 
Church  will  replace  it. 

41.  The  President  convened  Congress  early  in  January. 

42.  This  application  of  reason  predicates  a  great  national  future. 

43.  An  invitation  was  extended  to  him  to  dine  with  his  friends. 

44.  He  was  at  length  induced  to  desist. 


6S  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

45.  His  name  has  never  been  replaced  by  any  other  in  the 
transaction. 

46.  Twice  in  history  has  there  been  witnessed  the  struggle  of 
the  highest  individual  genius  against  a  nation. 

47.  If  you  are  of  that  opinion,  you  are  mistaken. 

48.  The  man  by  some  strange  accident  fell  off  the  dock. 

49.  His  offence  is  of  the  most  aggravated  description. 

50.  He  rushed  pell-mell  out  of  the  house. 

51.  The  piece  of  roast  beef  is  perfectly  splendid. 

52.  The  police  drill  will  transpire  under  shelter  to-day. 

53.  I  promise  you  I  was  very  much  surprised. 

54.  What  do  you  propose  doing  in  this  matter? 

55.  He  was  foolish  to  a  degree. 

56.  He  has  for  years  been  a  confirmed  invalid. 

57.  I  have  found  the  package  you  allude  to  in  your  letter. 

58.  We  were  stopping  at  the  Windsor  Hotel  in  Montreal. 

59.  Mr.  Booth's  rendition  of  Hamlet  was  admirable. 

60.  The  reader  soon  wearies  of  such  stuff. 

6 1 .  The  above  extract  is  sufficient  to  verify  my  assertion. 

62.  He  is  a  party  who  has  risen  to  eminence. 

63.  How  are  you  to-day?     Nicely,  thanks. 


LESSON    XVII. 

PRECISION. 

Precision  consists  in  selecting  the  word  or  expression  that  con- 
veys the  exact  meaning  intended  —  no  more,  no  less. 

Examples.  —  It  would  be  more  correct  to  say  da//ij>  clothes 
than  moisf  clothes,  because  anything  is  said  to  be  da/f/p  when  the 
wetness  is  from  some  outward  cause,  or  when  the  article  is  in  an 
abnormal  state  ;  while  that  is  mois^  which  is  naturally  damp,  as 
the  soil  when  fitted  for  vegetation. 


PRECISION.  69 

We  say  a  vacant  chair,  not  an  empty  chair;  for  though  both 
words  imply  that  the  chair  has  no  occupant,  yet  vacant  conveys 
the  idea  that  it  should  be  filled,  but  is  not,  while  empty  simply 
means  that  there  is  nothing  in  it. 

How  attained.  —  As  English  abounds  in  words  which  express 
nearly  the  same  meaning,  great  exactness  of  expression  is  possible, 
and  much  care  and  thought  are  necessary  to  be  able  to  select 
always  the  word  which  conveys  just  what  is  meant.  Much  may  be 
learned  by  observing  the  practice  of  good  authors,  but  the  most 
efficient  method  of  attaining  precision  is  the  careful  and  contin- 
uous study  of  synonyms.  This  may  be  carried  on  by  collating 
and  examining  words  of  nearly  the  same  meaning ;  by  revising 
every  sentence  that  one  writes,  and  studiously  inquiring  whether 
each  word  in  it  is  accurately  used  ;  and  by  the  study  of  some 
standard  work  on  the  subject,  such  as  Crabb's  or  Smith's  Syno- 
nyms, or  Roget's  Thesaurus. 

Further  Examples.  —  In  order  more  fully  to  illustrate  the  sub- 
ject a  few  synonyms  are  here  explained,  but  they  must  be  regarded, 
by  those  who  would  attain  proficiency,  as  the  merest  beginning. 

1.  Visitor,  Visitant.  Visitor  ox  visitant  i?,  one  who  pays  a  visit ; 
but  a  visitor  is  a  human  being,  and  a  visitant,  a  supernatural  one. 

2.  Neglect,  Negligence.  Neglect  is  an  act,  or,  rather,  a  failure 
to  act ;  negligence  implies  a  failure  to  conform  to  an  established 
standard  or  custom. 

3.  Continual,  Continuous.  Continual  \%  said  of  acts  that  are 
frequently  repeated  ;  continuous  of  uninterrupted  action. 

4.  Remember,  Recollect.  Remember  implies  only  that  the  -im- 
pression remains ;  recollect,  that  an  effort  is  made  to  recall  to 
the  mind  something  that  for  the  time  seems  to  have  escaped  it. 

5.  Utter,  Express.  To  utter  \%  simply  to  sound  anything  with 
the  voice ;  to  express  carries  the  additional  idea  of  meaning  and 
formality. 

6.  Crime,  Sin.  Crime  is  a  violation  of  law  divine  or  human, 
though  it  is  now  generally  applied  to  offences  against  the  state. 
Sin  is  a  departure  from  divine  law. 


70  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

7.  Courage,  Fortitude.  Courage  is  an  active,  energetic  resist- 
ance of  all  the  trials  or  difificulties  of  life  ;  fortitude  is  a  resolute 
endurance  of  present  evils  and  a  patient  resignation  to  the  worst 
that  may  happen. 

8.  Conscious,  A^vare.  We  are  conscious  of  anything  when  we 
know  of  it  by  reflection  ;  we  are  aware  of  anything  when  we  know 
of  it  by  observation  and  experience. 

9.  Healthy,  Wholesome.  //(f<z///iv  is  said  of  that  which  increases 
our  strength  —  physical,  mental,  or  moral ;  wholesome,  of  that 
which  does  it  no  injury. 

10.  Couple,  Two.  Couple  implies  that  the  two  united  are 
bound  by  some  tie  and  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  suitable  for 
such  a  union  ;  two  indicates  number  only. 

11.  Less,  Fewer.  Z^j'i' is  applied  to  things  measured  ; /<'7£'<?r, 
to  those  that  are  numbered. 

12.  Distijiguish,  Discriminate.  We  distinguish  by  our  mental 
or  physical  faculties  ;  we  discriminate  by  our  judgment  alone.  A 
distinction  is  an  important  or  marked  difference  ;  a  discrimination 
is  a  nice  or  exact  difference. 

13.  Answer,  Reply.  An  answer  is  given  to  a  question  or  de- 
mand, and  should  satisfy  it.  A  reply  is  a  formal  answer.  It  may 
be  made  to  arguments,  may  go  beyond  them,  and  may  be  made 
whether  it  is,  or  is  not,  expected  or  asked. 

14.  Deface,  Disfigure.  To  deface  is  wilfully  to  injure  the 
exterior  by  any  means ;  to  disfigure  is  to  mar  the  effect  by  some 
injury  to  the  appearance.  Things  are  defaced;  living  beings 
disfigured. 

15.  Habit,  Custom.  Habit  '\'a  ^2i\c\.  of  the  individual;  custom, 
of  the  community.  The  latter  is  voluntary ;  the  former  is  not 
purely  so. 

16.  Dumb,  Mute.  He  is  dumb  who  cannot  speak;  he  is  mute 
who  can  speak,  but  will  not. 

1 7.  Fault,  Defect.  A  defect  is  something  wanting  ;  a  fault  is 
something  wrong. 

18.  Excite,  Incite.     To  excite  is  to  awaken  or  rouse   feelings 


PRECISION.  71 

that  are  dormant  or  calm.     To  incite  is  to  urge  forward  into  acts 
corresponding  to  the  feelings  that  have  been  aroused. 

19.  Afanners,  Morals.  Manners  respect  the  minor  forms  of 
acting  with  others  and  toward  others ;  morals  include  the  impor- 
tant duties  of  life.  Good  manners  make  us  good  companions ; 
good  morals  make  us  good  members  of  society. 

20.  Truth,  Veracity.  Truth  belongs  to  the  thing ;  veracity,  to 
the  person.  The  truth  of  the  story  is  admitted  upon  the  veracity 
of  the  narrator. 

21.  Love,  Affection.  Both  these  words  express  good  will; 
affection  is  a  tender  sentiment  that  dwells  with  pleasure  on  the 
object ;  love  is  a  tender  sentiment  accompanied  with  longing  for 
the  object ;  we  cannot  have  love  without  affection,  but  we  may 
have  affection  without  love.  Love  is  a  passion,  exclusive,  restless, 
and  capricious  ;  affection  is  a  chastened  feeling  under  the  control 
of  the  understanding. 

22.  Bring,  Fetch.  To  bring  is  simply  to  take  with  one's  self 
from  the  place  where  one  is ;  to  fetch  is  first  to  go  to  a  place  and 
then  bring  the  object;  \o fetch,  therefore,  is  a  species  oi bringing : 
whatever  is  near  at  hand  is  brought ;  whatever  is  at  a  distance 
must  be  fetched :  the  porter  at  an  inn  brings  a  parcel,  a  servant 
who  is  sent  for  it  fetches  it. 

23.  Character,  Reputation.  Character  lies  in  a  man  ;  it  is  the 
mark  of  what  he  is  ;  it  shows  itself  on  all  occasions  ;  reputation 
depends  upon  others  ;  it  is  what  they  think  of  him.  It  is  possible 
for  a  man  to  have  a  fair  reputation  who  has  not  in  reality  a  good 
character ;  although  men  of  really  good  character  are  not  likely 
to  have  a  bad  reputation. 


72 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  XXIII. 

Precision. 

Direction.  —  Explain  these  synonyms  so  as  to  show  clearly  the  distinction 
in  the  meanings  they  bear;  then  write  a  sentence  in  which  each  is  properly  used. 


I. 
2. 

3- 
4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 

lO. 

II. 

12. 

13- 

14. 

15- 
16. 

17- 
iS. 
19. 
20. 
21. 


In  —  into. 
May  —  can. 
Shall  —  will. 
Fewer  —  less. 
Two  —  couple. 
Much  —  many. 
On  —  upon. 
Sit  —  Set. 
Aught  —  Ought. 
Beside  —  besides. 
Sex  —  gender. 
Like  —  love. 
Between  —  among. 
Live  —  dwell. 
Learning  —  wisdom. 
Talk  —  conversation. 
Letter  —  epistle. 
News  —  tidings. 
Wood  —  timber. 
Home  —  dwelling. 
Annual  —  yearly. 


Bad,  wicked,  evil. 
Band,     company, 


22. 

23.  Band,     company,     crew, 
gang. 

24.  Beautiful,  fine,  handsome, 
pretty. 

25.  Beg,  beseech,  solicit,  en- 
treat, supplicate,  implore,  crave. 

26.  Bring,  fetch,  carry. 
Call,  bid,  summon,  invite. 
Character,        reputation, 


27 
28 
fame 
29 
30 


Clear,  lucid,  brigiiC.  vivid. 
Command,  order,  injunc- 
tion, precept. 

31.  Compensation,  satisfac- 
tion, amends,  remuneration,  re- 
compense, requital,  reward. 

32.  Complete,  perfect,  fin- 
ished. 

33.  Decision,  judgment,  sen- 
tence. 


EXERCISE  XXIV. 

Precision. 

Direction.  —  In  the  following  sentences,  select  the  correct  synonym,  and 
jive  a  reason  for  your  choice. 

Part  L 

1.  What  (further,  or  farther)  need  have  we  of  caution? 

2.  We  may  try  hard  and  still  be  (further,  or  farther)  from  success. 


PRECISION.  73 

3.  Our  (acts,  or  actions)  generally  proceed  from  instinct  or 
impulse. 

4.  It  is  difficult  for  one  unaccustomed  to  (sophism,  or  sophis- 
try) to  succeed  in  a  (sophism,  or  sophistry) . 

5.  The  house  was  stripped  of  its  furniture,  and  was  entirely 
(empty,  or  vacant). 

6.  This  circumstance  (alone,  or  only)  is  sufficient  to  prove  the 
worthlessness  of  the  criticism. 

7.  We  (avow,  acknowledge,  own,  or  confess)  a  neglect  of  duty. 

8.  Though  numerous  applications  were  made  for  the  prisoner's 
(forgiveness,  or  pardon),  they  were  all  (unsuccessful,  or  ineffec- 
tual). 

9.  A  very  successful  (social,  or  sociable)  was  held  in  the  base- 
ment of  the  church. 

10.  Notwithstanding  all  his  efforts,  he  could  not  (recollect,  or 
remember)  the  date. 

11.  My  old  and  tried  friend  (introduced,  or  presented)  me  to 
his  wife. 

12.  He  was  (aware,  or  conscious)  of  a  very  unpleasant  feeling 
coming  over  him. 

13.  The  (negligence,  or  neglect)  of  this  leaves  us  exposed  to 
an  uncommon  levity  in  our  conversation. 

14.  The  (enormity,  or  enormousness)  of  the  distance  between 
the  earth  and  the  sun  accounts  for  these  effects. 

15.  His  domestic  virtues  are  too  well  known  to  make  it  neces- 
sary to  (allude,  or  refer)  to  them. 

16.  He  was  careful  in  his  (observance,  or  observation)  of  all  the 
usages  of  his  Church. 

17.  (Continuous,  continual,  or  continued)  droppings  wear  the 
stone. 

18.  The  vegetation  of  these  regions  is  (luxurious,  or  luxuriant). 

19.  The  food  furnished  to  the  men  was  (healthy,  or  whole- 
some). 

20.  In  the  most  rigorous  weather  he  is  scarcely  (sensitive  to,  or 
sensible  of)  the  cold. 


74  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


Part  II. 


21.  He  was  surprised  by  the  appearance  of  a  heavenly  (visitor, 
or  visitant). 

22.  After  that  witness  had  given  his  (evidence,  or  testimony), 
the  case  was  adjourned. 

23.  The  Irish  are  (perpetually,  or  continually)  using  shall  for 
will. 

24.  Her  death  was  hourly  (anticipated,  or  expected). 

25.  It  was   (due,  or  owing)    to  his  earnestness  that  the  plan 
succeeded. 

26.  He  acted  towards  the  prisoners  with  too  much  (lenity,  or 
leniency) . 

27.  There  were    not    (less,    or    fewer)    than    twenty   persons 
present. 

28.  He  went  in  and  took  the  (vacant,  empty,  or  unoccupied) 
seat. 

29.  Having  examined  the  affair,  I  wish  to  (say,  or  state)  that 
I  find  nothing  wrong. 

30.  I  have  frequently  heard  him  (utter,  express,  or  pronounce) 
that  opinion. 

31.  He  held  a  very  (decided,  or  decisive)  opinion  on  almost 
all  such  subjects. 

32.  He  has  not  yet  (answered,  or  replied  to)  my  last  letter. 

33.  The  murderer  was  (hanged,  or  hung)  on  the  17th  of  last 
month. 

34.  He  rejected  the   (proposal,  or  proposition)  made  by  his 
friend. 

35.  I  have  found  the  package  (alluded,  or  referred)  to  in  your 
advertisement. 

36.  He  took  up  the  cup  and  (taught,  or  educated,  or  instructed) 
his  disciples  how  to  drink  it  to  his  (memory,  or  remembrance). 


PRECISION.  75 

EXERCISE  XXV. 

Precision. 

Direction.  —  In  the  following  sentences,  find  the  words  not  used  precisely 
and  substitute  for  them  the  proper  synonyms. 

1.  The  discovery  of  steamboats  produced  a  beneficent  in- 
fluence on  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

2.  He  completes  the  story  without  freeing  the  heroine. 

3.  His  apparent  guilt  justified  his  friends  in  disowning  him. 

4.  He  must  content  himself  with  the  common  privileges  of  the 
place. 

5.  It  would  have  puzzled  him  to  make  good  the  assertion,  if 
its  veracity  had  been  tested  by  the  actual  condition  of  the  people. 

6.  My  heart  was  entirely  subdued  by  the  captivating  strains. 

7.  A  glance  at  the  clock  will  make  you  conscious  that  it  is 
nearly  three  in  the  morning. 

8.  And  as  she  was  going  to  bring  it,  he  called  to  her  and  said, 
"  Fetch  me,  I  pray  thee,  a  morsel  of  bread." 

9.  A  couple  of  ladies  fell  upon  the  ice  yesterday  afternoon. 

10.  In  a  house  like  this,  the  inhabitants  must  resemble  the 
knights  of  an  enchanted  castle. 

11.  The  Principal  is  an  astute,  ambitious,  and  uncommonly 
zealous  individual. 

12.  He  was  disposed  to  a  sincere  remorse  for  the  crimes  he 
had  committed  in  the  sight  of  heaven,  and  also  for  his  recent  sin 
in  breaking  the  laws  of  his  country. 

13.  She  seems  to  love  green  peas  and  apple  pie. 

14.  A  prodigious  number  of  hands  were  employed  in  removing 
the  debris. 

15.  I  have  tried  all  day  to  remember  the  details  of  that  dread- 
ful affair. 

16.  The  sincerity  of  his  religion  was  clearly  seen  in  his  rever- 
ence for  everything  virtuous. 

1 7.  He  excited  the  feelings  of  patriotism  that  had  lain  dormant 
in  the  nation. 


J6  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

1 8.  His  bravery  under  this  painful  operation,  and  the  fortitude 
he  had  shown  in  heading  the  last  charge  in  the  recent  action, 
inspired  every  one  with  admiration. 

19.  There  is  a  sect  in  that  city  who  believe  in  the  efficiency  ot 
prayer  to  cure  all  diseases. 

20.  Our  side-walks  shew  that  we  are  a  people  almost  wholly 
given  over  to  expectoration. 

2 1 .  The  Christmas  tree  was  denuded  of  its  gifts. 

22.  The  naked  bodies  and  barbarous  weapons  of  the  natives 
were  no  match  for  the  weapons  of  the  Spaniards. 

23.  The  desks  were  all  disfigured  by  penknives. 

24.  He  felt  himself  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  justice  of 
my  remark. 

25.  I  asked  him  to  fetch  the  book  with  him  when  he  came. 

26.  Have  you  any  idea  of  writing  to  him? 

27.  It  is  difficult  to  discriminate  between  adjectives  and  parti- 
ciples. 

28.  The  health  of  the  Empress  of  Germany  is  greatly  ameli- 
orated. 

29.  They  were  all  personages  of  more  or  less  consequence. 

30.  It  is  the  usefulness  of  any  moral  rule  alone  which  consti- 
tutes the  moral  obligation. 

EXERCISE  XXVI. 

Purity,  Propriety,  Prfxision. 

Direction.  —  In  the  following,  examine  whether  the  error  is  one  of  Purity, 
Propriety,  or  Precision,  and  then  correct  it,  giving  your  reason. 

Part  I. 

1.  Negligence  of  duty  often  produces  unhappiness. 

2.  The  prince  next  made  propositions  of  marriage,  but  was 
rejected  on  account  of  his  disgraceful  customs. 

3.  That  nation  is  noted  for  its  observation  of  the  Sabbath,  and 
for  its  intoleration  of  the  opinions  of  other  people. 


PURITY,    PROPRIETY,    PRECISION.  77 

4.  His  conscience  of  his  own  integrity  has  supported  him  despite 
the  neghgence  of  his  friends. 

5.  This  application  of  reason,  so  continually  and  generally 
exercised,  predicates  a  great  national  failure. 

6.  The  first  sleighing  of  the  season  arrived  yesterday. 

7.  Some  of  these  publications  are  calculated  to  injure  society. 

8.  Her  dehiit  was  made  on  a  sudden  emergency,  when  she 
made  so  decided  a  success  that  she  has  since  been  retained. 

9.  No  artist  who  has  ever  visited  the  city  created  a  greater 
furore  than  this  queen  of  song. 

10.  There  appears  to  be  a  determination  on  the  part  of  some 
of  the  leading  men  in  England  to  sit  on  the  patent  medicine 
dealers. 

11.  Adulterations  in  food  are  becoming  so  general  that  no  one 
knows  what  he  is  consuming  unless  it  is  produced  before  his  eyes. 

12.  There  will  be  some  tall  swearing,  some  big  fees,  some 
legal  sharpness,  and  all  that  kind  of  thing,  before  this  miserable 
case  comes  to  an  end. 

13.  The  present  parties  in  the  Reichstag  are  engaged  in  a 
perpetual  struggle  between  the  Empire  and  the  Church.* 

14.  He  thought  that  the  action  of  the  Government  might 
jeopardize  the  unity  of  the  Empire. 

15.  The  assumption  that  a  man  who  goes  into  a  caucus  is 
bound  to  vote  in  accordance  with  the  caucus  majority,  is  wholly 
gratuitous. 

16.  The  smooth  sea  grew  rough;  the  moon  grew  smaller  after 
the  full. 

17.  The  Mormon  prophet  has  taken  his  forty-fifth  help-mate. 

18.  Cornelia,  pointing  to  her  sons,  exclaimed,  "These  are  my 
jewelry." 

ig.   I  guess  I  shall  locate  out  West. 

20.    He  never  lived  in  this  section  of  the  country. 


78  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Part  II. 

21.  The  plan  of  the  University  embraces  the  building  of  a  new 
convocation  hall. 

2  2.    He  has  been  cutting  a  ridiculous  figure  for  quite  a  spell. 

23.  Manufactures  profited  by  the  discovery  of  Watt  and  Ark- 
wright,  and  by  the  consumption  of  raw  cotton  in  the  mills  of 
Lancashire. 

24.  I  will  not  be  answerable  for  the  exactitude  of  these 
speeches. 

25.  And  hast  thou  walked  in  the  world  with  so  little  observance 
as  to  wonder  that  men  are  not  what  they  seem  ? 

26.  The  deacons  seem  to  have  been  quite  unconscious  that  the 
law  prohibited  what  they  were  doing. 

27.  Events  had  transpired  in  the  country  which  changed  the 
aspect  of  affairs. 

28.  The  rains  rendered  the  roads  impracticable. 

29.  No  one  besides  ourselves  will  be  admitted. 

30.  There  is  a  serious  fault  in  that  man's  character. 

31.  Tkey  deserted  the  sinking  ship. 

32.  The  rules  are  indorsed  by  most  writers  on  the  subject. 

33.  The  number  of  blunders  imputed  to  him  is  endless. 

34.  I  never  saw  such  a  quantity  of  horses  at  any  show. 

35.  They  formed  a  procession  to  proceed  the  palanquin. 

^6.  I  am  well  aware  that  this  view  of  my  subject  is  not 
prevalent. 

37.  What  he  supposed  to  be  a  stone  turned  out  to  be  only  the 
apparition  of  one. 

T^S.    Some  change  will  probably  soon  arrive. 

39.  The  emeute,  was  caused  by  the  hauteur  of  the  new  governor, 

40.  He  deprecates  the  whole  proceeding. 


PURITY,    PROPRIETY,    PRECISION,  79 

Part  III. 

41.  The  sportsmen  bagged  a  large  amount  of  game. 

42.  I  have  heard  of  the  gents,  but  I  never  mdorsed  them. 

43.  He  came  home  unbeknown  to  his  parents. 

44.  An  Assurance  Company  has  been  started  in  the  town, 

45.  He  perambulated  up  and  down  the  street. 

46.  After  several  years,  they  at  length  heard  from  him. 

47.  They  all  refused  to  come  except  Mary  and  Alice  would. 

48.  Directly  I  found  the  house   inhabited,  I  began  to  be  sorry 
that  it  was  not  vacant. 

49.  The  epithets,  thief,  coward,  Uar,  were  heaped  upon  him. 

50.  I  expect  to  receive  an  invitation  to  that  party. 

51.  Such  a  statement  was  enough  to  dumbfounder  him. 

52.  He  was  a  model  in  mildness  of  temper  and  in  propemess 
of  behavior. 

53.  The  rogue  deserved  condign  punishment  for  his  crime. 

54.  The   announcement    of  the    victory   was    premature,   as   it 
turned  out  that  the  supposed  victors  were  vanquished. 

55.  He  died  in  the   conscience   of  never  having  failed  in  his 
duty  to  the  Pope. 

56.  We  are  more  liable  to  see  people's  faults  than  their  virtues. 

57.  Most  of  his  statements  were  the  converse  of  the  facts. 

58.  We  had  an  awfully  jolly  time  that  evening. 

59.  He  was  dragged  in  by  the  heels  and  afterwards  ejected  in 
the  same  manner. 

60.  When  the  English  greeted  the  P>ench  soldiers,  the  latter 

evinced  a  reciprocity. 

Part  IV. 

61.  He  experienced  a  very  painful  sensation. 

62.  That  meeting  was  a  howling  success  and  the  opponent's 
chances  are  now  higher  than  a  kite. 

63.  He  was  that  sick  that  he  could  not  proceed  a  step  further. 

64.  That  man  is  a  great  worker  antl  he  will  be  sure  to  "  get 
there." 


8o  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

65.  Though  lampoons  do  not  reUeve  a  man  of  his  money,  they 
lacerate  his  soul. 

66.  He  soon  acquired  the  custom  of  using  tobacco. 

67.  In  spite  of  all  their  threats  he  remained  perfectly  dumb. 

68.  We  had  a  delightful  dinner  yesterday. 

69.  It  is  not  difficult  to  discriminate  between  orange  and  green. 

70.  I  am  prepared  to  give  my  evidence  on  the  case. 

71.  "We  are,"  said  the  preacher,  "incessantly  reminding  peo- 
ple of  their  sins." 

72.  The  public  will  heartily  indorse  the  sentiments  uttered  by 
the  court. 

73.  The  state  was,  as  the  century  crept  on,  invaded  by  bands 
of  courageous  settlers. 

74.  In  spite  of  their  universal  determination,  midnight  arrived 
without  anything  decided. 

75.  His  friends  pardoned  him  for  the  injury  he  had  done  them. 

76.  There  was  a  general  outcry  of  surprise. 

77.  They  assumed  a  seat  at  the  banquet. 

78.  The  island  was  then  frequented  by  no  travellers  and  few 
visitants  of  any  kind. 

79.  He    led  us  into  a  room  lighted  up  with   abundance   of 
candles. 

80.  He  read  the  recital  of  that  dreadful  accident. 

81.  He  acts  like  a  downright  dude. 

82.  One  would  have  thought  by  their  acts  that  they  had  just 
blown  in  from  the  country. 

8^.    Obstacles  are  overcome  by  diligence. 

84.  He  was  notorious  for  his  charity. 

85.  Believe  me.  Yours  respectively. 


THE   FORMATION    OF    SENTENCES.  8 1 

LESSON    XVIII. 

II.      THE   FORMATION   OF   SENTENCES. 

The  formation  of  sentences  will  be  considered  under  four  heads  : 
I.  Clearness,  2.  Strength,  3.  Unity,  4.  Elegance. 

I.   Clearness. 

Clearness  requires  a  sentence  to  be  so  constructed  that  the 
meaning  is  easily  and  readily  apparent  to  the  reader.  When  the 
meaning  is  not  clear,  the  sentence  is  said  to  be  obscure ;  and 
when  there  is  an  uncertainty  as  to  which  of  two  different  meanings 
the  author  intends  to  convey,  the  sentence  is  said  to  be  ambiguous. 

How  promoted.  —  Clearness  is  a  relative  term.  What  is  clear 
to  one  person  may  be  obscure  to  another.  A  writer's  aim  should 
be  to  make  his  meaning  easily  intelligible  to  persons  who  under- 
stand the  language.  Clearness  is  promoted  by  attending  to  the 
following  points  :  The  Words,  Arrangement,  Pronouns,  Emphatic 
Words,  Same  Construction,  Ellipses,  Length  of  Sentences. 

THE   WORDS. 

If  we  wish  to  make  our  meaning  clear,  we  must  use  such  words 
as  are  understood  by  the  persons  addressed.  Discourse  is  some- 
times rendered  partially  or  wholly  obscure  through  an  excessive 
use  of  long,  unfamihar  words.  In  dealing  with  abstract  subjects, 
and  in  unfolding  the  principles  of  the  various  sciences,  difficult, 
technical  language  is  often  necessary  and  proper ;  but  in  treating 
of  subjects,  such  as  are  dealt  with  in  ordinary  narration  or  descrip- 
tion, short,  simple,  familiar  words  should  as  far  as  possible  be 
used. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

Qualifying  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  placed  so  near 
the  words  they  modify,  that  there  can  be  no  mistaking  the  con- 
nection intended. 


82  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

1 .  An  adverb  should  stand  close  to  the  word,  phrase,  or  clause, 
that  it  modifies ;  as,  "  The  general  nearly  lost  a  thousand  of  his 
men."  Here  "nearly"  is  placed  so  as  to  qualify  "  lost,"  though 
it  was  probably  intended  to  qualify  "  a  thousand." 

2.  Adverbial  phrases  and  clauses  must,  likewise,  be  placed 
near  the  words  they  qualify.  Thus,  "  The  eagle  saw  the  lamb  while 
flying."  Here  "  flying  "  seems  to  qualify  "  lamb,"  but  it  was  no 
doubt  intended  to  qualify  "  eagle  "  ;  so  the  sentence  should  read, 
"The  eagle  while  flying  saw  the  lamb." 

3.  Participial  Clauses.  —  In  placing  participial  clauses,  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  leave  it  ambiguous  to  which  of  two  nouns  the 
participle  and  its  qualifying  words  belong.  Thus,  "  I  saw  my  friend 
by  mere  accident  when  I  was  in  the  city  at  the  fair,  walking  down 
the  main  street."  Arrange  :  "  When  I  was  in  the  city  at  the  fair, 
I,  by  mere  accident,  saw  my  friend  walking  down  the  main  street." 

When  using,  instead  of  adverbial  phrases,  participles  implying 
"  while,"  "  when,"  "  though,"  "  that,"  or  "  if,"  make  it  clear,  by 
the  context,  or  by  the  arrangement,  which  conjunction  is  implied. 
If  this  cannot  be  done,  turn  the  phrase  into  a  relative  pronoun 
and  finite  verb ;  as,  "  Deafened  by  the  sound,  he  went  away." 
This  sentence,  as  it  stands,  is  open  to  different  meanings,  and 
unless  the  context  makes  clear  which  meaning  is  intended,  the 
conjunction  should  be  inserted.  Thus,  it  may  read,  "  because," 
"since,"  "as,"  "though,"  "when,"  "he  was  deafened  by  the 
sound,  he  went  away." 

"  Men,  following  after  shadows,  are  sure  to  be  deceived."  This 
may  mean,  "  Men  that,"  etc. ;  or  "  When  men,"  etc. 

"  Seeing  his  danger,  he  withdrew."  In  a  sentence  like  this,  the 
ambiguity  may  be  removed  by  inserting  a  preposition ;  as,  "  On 
seeing,"  etc. 

4.  Clauses.  —  Dependent  clauses  should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
keep  them  distinct  from  each  other  and  from  independent  clauses  ; 
as,  "  He  stated  that  he  wished  to  be  present,  and  intended  to 
speak  on  the  question."  To  make  the  intended  arrangement 
clear,  that  should  be  inserted  before  inie7ided. 


CLEARNESS.  83 

5,  Misleading  Arrangement. — Sometimes  sentences  are  so 
arranged  that  the  reader  is  led  to  suppose  that  a  certain  meaning 
>s  intended,  but  as  he  proceeds  he  finds  that  something  very  differ- 
ent is  the  sense  conveyed ;  as,  "  The  Rev.  J.  Jones  is  the  only 
gentleman  travelling  authorized  to  collect  subscriptions  for  this 
paper." 

6.  Words  that  have  a  number  of  meanings  must  be  placed  sc 
that  theie  can  be  no  mistaking  which  sense  is  intended;  thus, 
"The  general  had  some  fast  friends  in  the  city."  "Fast"  is 
ambiguous;  say,  "firm/'  or  "dissolute." 

EXERCISE  XXVII. 

The  Words. 

Direction.  —  Study  these  sentences  till  you  understand  them,  and  then 
write  out  the  meaning  in  simpler  words. 

1.  That  conflagration  consumed  numerous  edifices. 

2.  That  audacious  individual  continued  an  incessant  disturb- 
ance, terminating  only  with  the  termination  of  the  lecture. 

3.  The  lunar  effulgence  shed  a  luminous  radiance  over  our 
pathway. 

4.  He  expired  amid  circumstances  of  the  most  direful  indigence. 

5.  Here  we  discovered  a  spacious  cavern  which  afforded  us 
adequate  protection  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  elements. 

6.  He  gently  insinuated  the  incapacity  of  the  entire  assemblage. 

7.  I  remember  a  similar  objection  being  made  to  a  company 
of  sable  functionaries. 

8.  Her  maternal  relative  had  been  snatched  away  by  the  relent- 
less hand  of  Death. 

9.  Nor  is  it  improbable  that  the  teeming  future  may  usher  in 
existence  men  whose  resplendent  genius  will  entitle  them  to  take 
rank  with  the  immortals  of  extinct  civiMzations. 

10.  An  inventive  genius  who  was  a  profound  searcher  of  nature 
and  a  sagacious  scholar,  founded  the  immortal  system  of  Homoe- 
opathy. 


84  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

11.  A  youthful  personage  was  declared  culpable  and  was  sen-^ 
tenced  to  be  chastised. 

12.  He  was  not  prepared  to  confront  parental  displeasure  under 
the  stigma  of  dereliction. 

13.  The  benignant  pedagogue  arranged  matters  satisfactorily 
by  administering  a  sound  castigation. 

14.  I  bore  the  diminution  of  my  riches  without  any  outrages  of 
sorrow  or  pusillanimity  of  dejection. 

15.  Dialect  has  become  the  appellation  for  the  centrifugal  ten- 
dencies of  languages,  whether  originating  in  individuals,  in  fami- 
lies, or  provinces,  as  opposed  to  the  centripetal  power  of  analogy, 
represented  by  the  sway  which  majorities  always  exercise  over 
minorities. 

EXERCISE  XXVIII. 

Arrangement. 

DiRFXTiON.  —  Arrange  these  sentences  so  as  to  make  the  intended  mean- 
ing clear. 

Part  I. 

1.  Everybody  thought  that  it  was  destined  to  be  a  great  city 
twenty  years  ago. 

2.  The  French,  having  nearly  lost  five  thousand  men,  became 
discouraged. 

3.  Being  the  only  boy,  I  was  loved  by  both  my  parents,  and 
almost  allowed  to  do  as  I  liked. 

4.  I  am  this  year  offering  the  public  a  large  and  well  selected 
stock  to  select  from  at  reduced  prices. 

5.  Suppose  an  adult  man  could  be  suddenly  placed  in  the 
world,  as  Adam  is  said  to  have  been,  and  then  left  to  do  as  best 
he  might,  in  the  full  vigor  of  his  faculties. 

6.  It  was  my  father's  custom  to  hear  me  repeat  to  him  the 
lessons  I  was  learning  when  I  was  a  boy. 

7.  He  is  bound  to  execute  any  order  you  give. 

8.  He  walked  away  very  reluctantly  acknowledging  his  fault. 

9.  I  saw  some  boys  going  to  school  through  the  window. 


CLEARNESS.  85 

10.  He  answered  all  the  questions  that  were  put  to  him  quite 
readily. 

1 1 .  His  rebuke  had  the  desired  effect. 

12.  The  last  scene  of  Canonchet's  life  is  worthy  as  one  of  the 
noblest  instances  on  record  of  Indian  magnanimity. 

13.  The  fire  started  in  the  basement,  caused  by  the  explosion 
of  a  lamp. 

14.  The  great  ends  of  the  Revolution  were,  indeed,  secured 
even  amidst  the  confusion  and  intrigue  which  we  shall  have  to 
describe,  by  the  common  consent  of  all. 

15.  They  broke  down  both  the  door  of  the  stable  and  of  the 
cellar. 

16.  He  pulled  up  the  three  first  plants  in  the  row. 

1 7.  All  of  us  wish  sometimes  to  communicate  our  thoughts  to 
others. 

18.  There  is  a  set  of  merry  drolls  whom  the  people  love  so 
well  that  they  could  eat  them  according  to  the  old  proverb. 

19.  Prove  that  Waterloo  was  fit  retribution  before  you  praise. 

20.  He  stabbed  Csesar  twenty-three  times  between  Pompey's 
Pillar  and  eleven  o'clock,  many  of  which  were  fatal. 

21.  These  we  not  only  hear  now  sometimes,  but  even  see  in 
print. 

22.  The  judge  sentenced  him  to  jail  for  disorderly  conduct  for 
ten  days. 

23.  I  shall  have  a  comedy  for  you  in  a  season  or  two  at  the 
farthest,  that,  I  believe,  will  be  worth  your  acceptance. 

24.  A  stupid  butt  is  only  fit  for  the  conversation  of  ordinary 
people. 

25.  For  they  call  me  wise,  even  though  I  am  not  wise,  when 
they  want  to  reproach  you. 

Part  H. 

26.  Under  the  circumstances,  I  must  admit  that  you  acted  fairly. 
2  7.    She  did  not  hear  what  you  said  running  so  quickly  down 

the  crowded  street.      •" 


86  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

28.  They  ran  home  crying  "  Fire  !  "  in  their  overcoats. 

29.  I  saw  the  sunset  walking  on  the  pier  behind  the  mountain. 

30.  The  whale  crushed  the  boat  to  atoms  while  floating. 

31.  And  keep  the  flame  from  wasting  by  repose. 

32.  He  did  not  notice  what  you  said,  going  unexpectedly  out 
at  that  moment. 

^T,.  We  departed  and  left  a  great  many  people  very  sorry  be- 
hind us. 

34.  He  has  lately  applied  steam  to  move  coal-wagons  on  a 
railway,  instead  of  drawing  them  with  horses,  with  great  success. 

35.  In  that  room  hangs  a  picture  neatly  painted  behind  the 
door. 

36.  He  left  the  room  quickly  dropping  the  purse  on  the  floor. 

37.  He  did  not  pretend  to  extirpate  French  music,  but  only  to 
cultivate  it.         ^ 

38.  Why,  I  believe,  with  a  tolerable  grace,  I  do  bear  a  part.  I 
desire  not  to  be  misunderstood, 

39.  Poverty  had  driven  him  in  boyhood  to  accept  a  writership 
in  the  company's  service. 

40.  Awaking  with  a  start,  the  waters  heaved  around  me. 

41.  When  I  came  into  the  country  visiting  my  friends,  looking 
up  the  street,  I  saw  my  father  coming  to  fetch  me  home. 

42.  A  master  who  is  essentially  a  crammer,  cannot  be  prevented 
from  cramming  by  any  power  on  earth. 

43.  Let  not  English  manufacturers  depart  from  the  maxims  of 
self-help,  which  have  made  them  what  they  are,  by  calling  upon 
the  Government  to  do  their  work  for  them. 

44.  Among  the  first  arrivals  was  Mr.  Derby,  now  so  loved  by 
every  one,  who  was  to  officiate  on  the  occasion. 

45.  The  beaux  of  that  day  used  the  abominable  art  of  painting 
their  faces  as  well  as  the  women. 

46.  The  enemy  attacked  us  before  the  day  had  begun  to  break, 
at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

47.  Wanted,  a  young  woman  to  take  care  of  two  orphan  chil- 
dren, of  a  religious  turn  of  mind. 


CLEARNESS.  8/ 

48.  Lost,  a  cow,  belonging  to  an  old  woman,  with  brass  knobs 
on  her  horns, 

49.  After  the  robins  have  pinched  and  pounded  all  the  life  out 
of  an  earth-worm,  as  Italian  cooks  pound  all  the  spirit  out  of  a 
steak,  and  then  gulped  him,  they  stand  up  in  honest  self-confi- 
dence. 

50.  To  be  superannuated  at  that  age  must  be  regarded  rather 
as  a  hardship  than  as  a  favor  by  men  of  energetic  dispositions. 


LESSON   XIX. 

CLEARNESS.  —  PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns.  —  Owing  to  the  fact  that  we  have  in  English  so  few 
pronouns  of  the  third  person,  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  make 
clear  to  which  antecedent  a  pronoun  refers.  This  is  especially 
the  case  in  long  sentences  where  there  are  two  or  more  nouns 
of  the  same  number  and  gender.  Various  expedients  may  be 
employed  to  obviate  the  difficulty  ;  as,  — 

1.  To  break  up  the  sentence  into  two  or  more  shorter  ones. 

2.  To  make  one  of  the  nouns  singular  and  the  other  plural. 

3.  To  change  the  construction  so  as  to  make  the  pronouns  of 
different  persons. 

4.  To  report  a  speech  in  the  first  person. 

5.  To  put  a  synonym  instead  of  the  noun. 

6.  To  supply  the  nouns. 

Examples. — "  He  told  his  father  that  he  would  never  forget 
his  promise."  The  last  "  his  "  is  ambiguous.  Read,  "  He  said 
to  his  father,  '  I  will  never  forget  my  {^or  your)  promise.'  " 

"Almost  immediately  after  the  accession  of  Henry  VI.  the 
French  king  died,  and  he  was  proclaimed  king  of  France  at 
Paris."  Here  "  he  "  seems  to  have  "  French  king  "  for  its  ante- 
cedent.    For  "  he  "  substitute  "  Henry  of  England." 


88  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Relative  Pronouns. — The  relative  pronouns  must  be  placed 
so  as  to  refer  clearly  to  their  antecedents. 

The  following  rules  will  be  found  of  service  :  — 

1.  Do  not,  if  possible,  allow  any  words  to  intervene  between 
the  relative  and  its  antecedent. 

2.  When  the  relative  clause  is  restrictive,  and  the  use  of  "  who  '" 
or  "  which  "  causes  ambiguity,  use  "  that." 

3.  The  ambiguity  arising  from  the  use  of  "who"  or  "which" 
may  sometimes  be  removed  by  placing  a  definite  article,  or  other 
demonstrative  word,  before  the  antecedent.  Thus,  "  Virtue  which 
hides  itself  is  not  sure  of  its  reward."  This  sentence  is  open  to 
two  meanings,  as  "which  "  may  be  either  connectiv^e  or  restrictive. 
By  placing  "  the  "  or  "  that  "  before  "  virtue  "  the  relative  is  made 
restrictive  only. 

4.  Ambiguity  may  sometimes  be  removed  by  repeating  the 
antecedent  in  some  new  form.  Thus,  "  He  said  that  he  would 
not  even  hear  me,  which  I  had  expected."  "  He  said  that  he 
would  not  even  hear  me,  a  refusal  (or  a  favor)  which  (or  that)  I 
had  expected." 

5.  Do  not  use  a  redundant  "and"  before  "which";  as,  "I 
gave  him  an  interesting  book  for  a  present,  and  which  cost  me 
five  dollars." 

"  And  "  is  not  redundant  when  it  stands  between  two  co-ordinate 
relative  clauses  each  introduced  by  "which." 

6.  Sometimes  it  is  better  to  begin  a  new  sentence  and  to  turn 
"who"  or  "which"  into  a  personal  pronoun,  or  pronoun  and 
conjunction  ;  as,  "  He  "  or  "  And  he,"  "  It  "  or  "  And  it." 

7.  Again,  the  relative  and  its  preposition  may  be  changed  into 
"  whereby,"  "  whereupon,"  "  whereat,"  or  into  some  other  subor- 
dinate conjunction ;  "  As  the  skeleton  that  waited  at  their  feast, 
by  which  (whereby)  their  sinful  pleasure  was  increased." 

8.  Ambiguity  may  at  times  be  avoided  by  omitting  the  relative 
or  by  making  its  clause  a  participial  phrase. 


CLEARNESS.  89 

EXERCISE  XXIX. 

Pronouns. 

Direction.  —  Remove  the  ambiguity  from  these  sentences,  by  applying  some 
of  the  expedients  suggested. 

Part  I. 

1 .  The  captain  of  the  ship  swam  ashore,  and  so  did  the  cook. 
She  was  insured  for  fifteen  thousand  dollars,  and  was  heavily 
loaded  with  iron. 

2.  They  were  persons  of  ordinary  abilities,  even  before  they 
were  injured  by  their  vices. 

3.  He  promised  his  father  that  he  would  never  forget  his 
advice. 

4.  The  farmer  went  to  his  neighbor,  and  told  him  that  his 
cattle  were  in  his  field. 

5 .  The  boy  told  his  master  that  whatever  he  did,  he  could  not 
please  him. 

6.  People  of  all  diseases,  and  without  any  kind  of  disease,  buy 
patent  medicines,  and  they  are  swallowed  down  by  the  barrel  in 
every  town  and  city. 

7.  It  would  be  a  great  thing  if  our  youthful  agriculturists 
would  read  more,  and  whatever  stimulates  that  is  to  be  looked  on 
as  good. 

8.  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  freedom  where  any 
person  is  free  to  do  as  he  likes  with  any  one  or  his  property,  and 
who  can  have  no  redress,  is  no  freedom  at  all. 

9.  A  young  girl,  it  is  said,  has  just  died  in  an  asylum  in  Ham- 
burg, whose  hair  was  accustomed  to  change  its  color  according  to 
her  states  of  mind. 

10.  He  said  to  me  that  if  he  did  not  wish  to  do  so,  he  need 
not,  but  that  he  would  do  so  any  way. 

11.  The  picture  of  the  king  hung  on  the  wall  behind  the  door; 
it  was  covered  with  a  cloth. 

12.  He  said  that  he  would  send  him  help  if  he  was  willing  to 
accept  it. 


90  COMPOSITIOxN    AND    RHETORIC. 

13.  He  fired  accidentally  and  shot  the  man  v/hile  he  was  out 
walking. 

14.  PJe  informed  the  man  that  he  had  seen  his  brother  and 
that  he  had  gone  to  see  the  exhibition. 

15.  In  the  confusion  that  followed, the  carriage  ran  over  the 
boy  that  had  black  wheels. 

16.  Althougli  I  have  looked  everywhere,  I  cannot  find  one  of 
my  books. 

1 7.  He  shot  the  man  and  broke  his  leg. 

t8.   The  dog  ran  away  with  the  meat,  whose  tail  had  been  cut 
off  by  a  wagon  that  had  been  stolen  from  the  cook. 

19.  While  he  was  going  through  the  country,  he  met  a  friend 
and  he  was  very  ill,  but  he  gave  him  food  and  he  recovered. 

20.  He  is  unworthy  of  the  confidence  of  a  fellow-being  who 
disregards  the  laws  of  his  Maker. 

21.  When  very  little   snow  falls,  or  when   it  is  blown  off  the 
fields,  it  greatly  diminishes  the  crop  of  fall-wheat  the  next  season. 

22.  John  told  James  that  if  he  did  not  start  sooner,  he  would 
be  late,  and  that  this  would  not  suit  him. 

23.  He  hath  made  him  to  be  sin  for  us  who  knew  no  sin. 

24.  She  asked  her  if  she  would  keep  house  for  her  while   she 
was  away. 

25.  He  said  that  he  had  seen  his  brother  and  that  he  would  fulfil 
his  part  of  the  bargain. 

Part  H. 

26.  He  went  to  the  officer  and  told  him  if  he  did  not  make 
that  man  give  him  back  his  purse,  he  would  have  him  prosecuted. 

27.  There   is  a  mortgage   on   the  property,  which  will  likely 
cause  some  trouble. 

28.  I  thus  obtained  a  character  for  natural  powers  of  reasoning 
which  I  could  not  refute,  and  yet  which  I  felt  was  undeserved. 

29.  Meanwhile  the  sponsors  of  both  champions  went  as  was 
their  duty,  to  see  that  they  were  duly  armed  for  the  combat. 

30.  Henrique  forced  him  to  his  knees  and  beat  him  till  he  was 
out  of  breath. 


CLEARNESS.  9I 

31.  It  is  a  kind  of  basin  twenty  feet  long,  enclosed  in  a  wall, 
which  comes  from  a  distance  of  several  miles. 

32.  He  is  ruining  his  health  by  the  same  errors  that  so  many 
have  ruined  theirs  before. 

33.  The  prior  had  control  of  a  large  part  of  the  revenues, 
which  gave  him  the  means  of  defraying  his  own  expenses. 

34.  In  the  spring  of  1888,  he  lost  his  sight  through  an  injury 
CO  the  optic  nerve,  which  was  caused  by  exposure,  after  eighteen 
years  of  service  devoted  to  Hfe-saving. 

35.  His  servant  being  ill,  he  had  consented  to  allow  his  brother, 
a  timid  youth  from  the  country,  to  take  his  place  for  a  short  time, 
and  for  that  short  time  he  was  a  constant  source  of  annoyance. 

36.  While  he  was  out  hunting  he  met  an  Indian,  and  he  at- 
tempted to  take  his  life,  but  he  could  not. 

37.  Xenophon  is  always  celebrating  the  good  nature  of  his 
hero,  which  he  tells  us  he  brought  into  the  world  with  him. 

38.  He  bequeathed  to  his  brother  Alexander,  the  sum  of 
^12,000,  to  his  wife  $1000,  and  to  his  three  children  $1000  each. 

39.  The  king  was  shot  by  his  nephew  while  he  was  crossing  the 
mountain. 

40.  The  man  was  driving  an  old  ox  when  he  became  angry  and 
kicked  him,  hitting  his  jawbone  with  such  force  as  to  break  his  leg. 

41.  In  general  I  enjoy  settled  confirmed  health,  to  which  J 
have  for  some  years  paid  great  attention,  chiefly  from  public  views. 

42.  Her  maid  said  that  when  she  had  a  fine  face  she  was  always 
looking  on  it  in  her  glass. 

43.  This  way  will  direct  you  to  a  gentleman's  house  that  hath 
skill  to  take  off  these  burdens. 

44.  All  persons  wishing  to  have  the  Times  sent  to  any  of  their 
friends,  will  please  give  their  names  to  any  member  of  the  com- 
mittee. 

45.  Tell  her  of  a  piece  of  good  fortune  that  has  befallen  one  of 
her  acquaintances ;  and  she  wishes  it  may  prosper  with  her,  but 
her  mother  used  one  of  her  nieces  badly. 

46.  I  notified  the  constable  and  he  arrested  the  man  at  once. 


92  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

47.  I  offer  for  sale  the  stock  saved  from  the  fire,  which  consists 
of  tweeds,  yarns,  and  a  few  gray  blankets. 

48.  Last  night  I  lay  on  a  gondola  on  the  Grand  Canal,  drinking 
it  all  in,  and  life  never  seemed  so  full  before. 

49.  A  dream  varies  our  being  and  changes  our  condition  while 
it  lasts. 

50.  Mr.  Frelinghuysen,  the  Secretary  of  State,  tendered  me  the 
appointment,  which  I  accepted. 


LESSON    XX. 
CLEARNESS.  —  EMPHATIC   WORDS. 

Emphatic  words  should  occupy  emphatic  positions. 

Subject  and  Predicate.  —  In  order  that  a  sentence  may  be 
easily  and  clearly  understood,  it  is  important  that  the  subject  and 
the  predicate  should  occupy  prominent  positions. 

1.  The  Subject.  —  When  the  principal  subject  is  the  same  as 
the  grammatical  there  are  three  places  of  prominence  that  it  may 
occupy  :  — 

a.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  The  medicine  man 
pitched  his  magic  lodge  in  the  woods." 

b.  After  an  adverbial,  participial,  or  other  subsidiary  clause ; 
as,  "  With  great  difficulty,  we  managed  to  glide  down  the  slippery 
trunk  of  a  pine  tree." 

c.  At  the  end  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  The  most  shameless  thing 
in  the  world  is  a  perfect  democracy." 

2.  The  Predicate.  —  It  is  no  less  important  that  the  predicate 
should  be  placed  in  a  conspicuous  position.  Its  natural  place  is 
after  the  subject.  When,  however,  it  is  specially  emphatic,  it  may 
precede  the  subject,  or  even  stand  first  in  the  sentence.  Thus, 
"  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"  is  much  more  emphatic  than 
*'  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great." 


CLEARNESS.  93 

Caution. — The  grammatical  subject  and  the  principal  subject 
of  a  sentence,  though  usually  the  same,  are  not  always  so.  For 
example,  in  the  following  sentence  the  principal  subject  is  the  part 
in  italics  :  "  Happy  if  they  all  had  continued  to  know  their  indis- 
soluble union,  and  tiieir  proper  placed 

Other  Emphatic  Words. — Clearness  as  well  as  force  further 
requires  that  all  other  emphatic  words  in  a  sentence  should  occupy 
emphatic  positions,  and  that  where  there  are  several  emphatic 
words  it  should  be  made  clear  which  are  the  most  emphatic. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that,  when  words  are 
placed  out  of  their  usual  order,  they  are  made  more  emphatic. 

See  also  what  is  said  in  "  Caution  "  to  Exercise  VI. 

The  Same  Construction. 

The  Same  Construction. — -In  the  different  parts  of  a  sentence 
that  are  joined  together  in  the  same  connection,  the  same  con- 
struction should  generally  be  maintained  throughout.  This  rule 
applies,  chiefly,  to  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  that  come  near 
together ;  it  must  not  be  adhered  to  so  closely  as  to  make  the 
sentence  stiff  or  monotonous. 

Examples.  —  Say  "  good  and  brave,"  or,  "  of  goodness  and 
bravery,"  not,  "of  goodness  and  brave," 

"  He  was  fully  resolved  to  give  up  commercial  life  and  on  devot- 
ing himself  to  the  study  of  languages."  This  should  read,  "  He 
was  fully  resolved  to  give  up  commercial  life  and  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  study  of  languages,"  or  "  on  giving  "  and  "  on  devoting." 

In  contrasts,  the  sentences  are  both  clearer  and  more  forcible  if 
the  contrasted  members  are  constructed  alike.  For  example,  the 
sentence,  "  Scriptural  language  burst  from  his  lips  when  he  saw 
victory  at  Dunbar ;  they  faltered  it  even  in  death,  though  he  had 
almost  lost  his  policy  and  consciousness,"  is  much  better  as  the 
author  has  it :  "  Scriptural  language  burst  from  his  hps  when  he 
saw  victory  at  Dunbar ;  it  hovered  on  them  in  death,  when  policy, 
and  almost  consciousness,  was  gone." 


94  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE    XXX. 

Emphatic  Words. 
Direction.  —  Give  the  emphatic  words  a  conspicuous  situation. 

1.  There  is  little  question  of  his  genius. 

2.  The  idea  of  Nature's  abhorrence  of  a  vacuum  grew  out  of 
the  discussion  of  pumps. 

3.  Nor  is  the  reason  which  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  this 
moral  law  difficult  to  be  discerned. 

4.  I  should  have  come  up  last  week,  if  I  had  known  you  were 
sick. 

5.  All  mankind  are  passing  or  have  passed  through  such  con- 
ceptions of  the  plan  and  working  of  the  Universe. 

6.  His  is  a  mind  that,  in  discerning  and  reflecting  whatever 
odd  or  amusing  things  occur  in  life  around,  occupies  itself  pre- 
eminently. 

7.  There  is  surely  nothing  in  these  explanations  that  is  not 
borne  out  by  the  facts. 

8.  That  our  older  writers  quoted  to  excess,  it  would  be  the 
blindness  of  partiality  to  deny. 

9.  The  spirit  of  the  famous  house  of  Vasa  rose  to  the  first 
heroic  height  in  him. 

10.  They  drew  off  slowly  and  sullenly,  leaving  nothing  to  the 
victor  except  some  guns  of  position. 

11.  The  business  will  task  your  skill  and  fidelity.  (Make 
"  fidelity  "  emphatic.) 

12.  The  nights  that  had  been  spent  by  him,  not  on  his  couch, 
were  many. 

13.  The  exhaustion  that  he  had  experienced  had  been  great. 

14.  The  lustre  of  his  youth  had  sometimes  been  haggard. 

15.  We  should  first  secure  a  good  definition  of  Oratory.  I 
think  this  is  not  difficult. 

16.  It  must  have  seemed  dreadful  to  all  who  were  within  sight 
or  hearing  of  Liitzen  when  that  battle  was  over. 


CLEARNESS.  95 

17.  A  mere  conqueror  ought  not  to  obtain  from  us  the  rev- 
erence that  is  due  to  the  great  benefactors  of  mankind. 

18.  But  who  can  doubt  that  this  man's  rehgion  was  sincere? 

19.  Colored  people  are  more  successfully  photographed,  as  a 
rule,  than  white  people,  in  the  opinion  of  an  experienced  artist. 

20.  All  thy  towers  are  sunk  in  shapeless  ruin. 

21.  The  man  who,  void  of  cares,  retains  a  shilling  in  silken  or 
in  leathern  purse,  is  happy. 

22.  To  the  command  of  the  parliamentary  party  was  appointed 
the  Earl  of  Essex,  a  man  of  respectable  abilities  and  of  some 
military  experience. 

23.  The  house  occupied  five  years  in  building,  costing  the 
proprietor  a  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

24.  The  Indians  are  exceedingly  skilful  in  shooting  buffaloes  ; 
sending  an  arrow  quite  through  the  body  of  a  full-grown  buffalo, 
he  being  in  a  favorable  position,  and  sufficiently  near. 

25.  Zenobia  assumed  the  government  after  the  murder  of  her 
husband,  avenging  his  death,  and  making  herself  formidable  to  all 
the  nations  within  her  reach. 

EXERCISE  XXXI. 

The  Samk  Construction. 
Direction.  —  In  these  sentences,  make  both  parts  of  the  same  form. 

1.  The  oppoi;ents  of  the  Government  are  naturally,  and  not 
without  justification,  elated  at  the  failure  of  the  attempt. 

2.  The  general  was  quite  aware  how  treacherous  were  the  in- 
tentions of  his  entertainers,  and  of  the  dangers  from  which  he  had 
lately  escaped. 

3.  To  deride  the  miseries  of  the  unhappy  is  inhuman,  and  want- 
ing compassion  towards  them  is  unchristian. 

4.  Before  the  locusts  came,  the  country  was  a  paradise  ;  after 
their  work  was  done,  they  left  only  a  desert. 

5.  These  funds  will  be  available  for  meeting  such  expenses,  and 
to  enable  the  committee  to  carry  out  the  scheme. 


g6  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

6.  The  boys  said,  "  We  are  going,  and  that  Jhey  would  not  stay 
long." 

7.  He  is  one  of  the  few  surviving  magistrates  of  the  island  of 
which  he  is  a  native,  and  has  lived  in  it  all  his  life. 

8.  Deserters  from  principle,  listed  with  fortune,  they  never  see 
any  good  in  suffering  virtue  ;  nor,  with  them,  is  usurpation  a  crime 
if  prosperous. 

9.  /\11  returned  to  their  homes  well  pleased  with  the  exercises 
of  the  evening,  and  in  the  conscious  enjoyment  of  the  time  profit- 
ably spent. 

10.  The  love  of  Christ  is  like  a  sea,  into  whose  bosom  you  can 
look  a  little  way,  but  its  depths  are  unfathomable. 

11.  In  England  we  are  said  to  learn  manners  at  second  hand 
from  your  side  of  the  water,  and  that  we  dress  our  behavior  in 
the  frippery  of  France. 

12.  As  far  as  appears  there  was  no  prejudicing  the  case,  and 
no  attempt  to  strain  evidence  to  accomplish  their  conviction. 

13.  I  recollect  the  good,  honest,  wholesome,  hungry  repast 
which  we  made  under  a  beech-tree,  just  by  a  spring  of  pure,  sweet 
water  that  stole  out  of  the  side  of  a  hill ;  and  how,  when  it  was  over, 
one  of  the  party  read  old  Izaak  Walton's  "  Scene  with  the  Milkmaid." 

14.  He  undertook  the  preparation  of  the  hall,  and  to  provide 
accommodations  and  refreshments  for  all  who  might  come. 

15.  I  fancied  how  these  ugly  suburbs  would  join  with  the  open 
fields,  and  that  the  city  would  soon  reach  to  the  river. 

16.  No  matter  how  bright  the  future  may  appear,  we  should 
not  depend  on  it,  but  let  us  act  in  the  present. 

1 7.  He  decided  to  visit  the  gorge,  and  if  he  saw  any  of  the 
party,  he  would  ask  for  his  dog  and  gun. 

18.  The  judgments  which  Johnson  passed  on  books  were,  in 
his  own  time,  regarded  with  superstitious  veneration,  and,  in  our 
time,  people  generally  treat  them  with  contempt. 

19.  Of  the  two  great  creative  minds  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  one  produced  the  "  Paradise  Lost,"  and  the 
"  Pilgrim's  Progress  "  was  the  work  of  the  other. 


CLEARNESS.  97 

20,  There  is  a  principle  which  Hastings  was  fond  of  asserting  in 
the  strongest  terms,  and  he  acted  on  it  with  undeviating  steadiness. 

21.  Wisdom  is  the  promise  of  the  past ;  but  if  we  want  pledges 
for  the  future,  we  look  to  beauty. 


LESSON    XXI. 

CLEARNESS.  —  IMPROPER   ELLIPSES. 

Improper  Ellipses. — Although,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  a 
sentence  is  strengthened  by  omitting  all  words  not  necessary  to 
a  clear  expression  of  the  thought,  yet  if  this  is  carried  too  far, 
ambiguity,  obscurity,  or  loss  of  vigor,  will  be  the  result. 

The  following  hints  will  be  found  useful :  — 

1.  The  article  should  be  repeated  before  each  noun  when  dis- 
tinct things  are  meant;  as,  "a  treasurer  and  secretary"  means 
one  person  who  holds  two  offices,  but  "  a  treasurer  and  a  secre- 
tary" means  two  officers.  "The  good  and  wise  "  are  one  class 
with  two  qualities  ;  "  the  good  and  the  wise  "  are  two  classes. 

2.  The  subject,  or  some  word  representing  it,  should  be  inserted 
when  the  omission  would  perplex  the  reader.  Thus  :  "  He  pre- 
tends to  be  working  for  his  friends,  whom  he  is  actually  betraying, 
and  (he?  or  they?)  will  not  allow  any  one  else  to  interfere." 

3.  A  conjunction  should  be  repeated  when  its  omission  makes 
the  construction  doubtful.  Thus  :  "  When  we  look  back  upon  the 
havoc  that  two  hundred  years  have  made  in  the  ranks  of  our 
authors,  —  and,  above  all,  (when)  we  refer  their  disappearance 
to  the  succession  of  new  competitors,  —  we  are  dismayed  at  the 
prospect  of  present  writers." 

4.  When  there  are  two  or  more  relative  clauses  the  relative 
pronoun  must  generally  be  repeated  with  each  ;  as,  "  His  heroes 
are  men  who  have  arrived  by  different  roads  at  the  same  goal  of 
despair,  and  (who)  to  the  last  defy  the  power  of  earth  and  heaven." 


98  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

5.  After  the  conjunctions  than  or  as  the  verb  or  other  words 
whose  omission  causes  ambiguity  must  be  inserted  ;  as  "  He  Hkes 
me  better  than  you  "  should  be  "  He  hlces  me  better  than  you 
like  me,"  or,  "  better  than  he  likes  you." 

6.  When  the  sentence  is  long  and  the  verb  far  from  its  subject, 
the  subject  or  some  word  that  will  stand  as  a  summary  of  what 
has  been  said  must  be  inserted.  Thus  :  "  Gold  and  cotton,  banks 
and  railways,  crowded  ports  and  populous  cities,  although  matters 
of  great  moment,  these  are  not  the  elements  that  constitute  a  great 
nation." 

Length  of  Sentences. 

Long  Sentences.  —  With  young  persons  there  is  no  more  fruit- 
ful source  of  obscurity  than  long  sentences.  The  beginner  plunges 
with  such  zest  into  his  subject  that  he  never  thinks  of  a  full  stop, 
but  goes  on  m  one  continuous  sentence  and  is  soon  hopelessly  lost 
in  his  maze  of  words.  Then  he  flounders  about  evidently  without 
the  faintest  idea  of  what  is  the  subject,  what  the  predicate,  which 
the  dependent,  or  which  the  independent  clause,  in  his  never- 
ending  sentence.  His  remedy  is  to  put  in  plenty  of  full  stops, 
and,  if  the  style  has  no  other  excellence,  it  will  at  least  possess 
some  degree  of  clearness. 

If,  in  a  sentence,  the  subordinate  clauses  are  all  of  the  same 
kind,  all  constructed  in  a  similar  form,  and  all  depending  on  the 
same  principal  clause,  there  is  not  necessarily  any  obscurity ;  but 
when  a  sentence  consists  of  many  clauses  promiscuously  thrown 
together,  or  when  the  dependent  clauses  have  others  depending 
on  them,  very  close  attention  —  closer  than  the  writer  is  entitled 
to  demand  —  is  required  to  gather  the  meaning. 


CLEARNESS.  99 

EXERCISE   XXXII. 

Improper  Ellipses. 

Direction.  —  Supply  the  words  whose  omission  causes  obscurity  or  am 
biguity. 

1.  She  always  thought  more  of  attending  to  the  wants  of  others 
than  of  herself. 

2.  My  boyhood  days  were,  in  a  measure,  like  all  other  boys, 
spent  in  school  and  at  home. 

3.  Some  young  people  find  it  difficult  to  distinguish  between  a 
synecdoche  and  metonymy. 

4.  They  aimed  at  nothing  less  the  supreme  control  of  the  gov- 
ernment. 

5.  The  hotel's  night  watchman  enables  gendemen  to  be  called 
at  any  time,  and  adds  greatly  to  the  comfort  and  security  of  all. 

6.  If  dead,  his  wife  and  children  may  apply. 

7.  We  hope  the  time  will  be  short  until  your  health  is  restored 
and  in  our  midst  again. 

8.  He  wished  for  nothing  more  than  a  dictionary. 

9.  Of  those  now  at  the  Home  some  were  born  in  England  and 
Ireland,  and  some  came  from  the  city. 

10.  The  geography  and  history  are  valuable  books. 

11.  I  have  no  more  influence  over  him  than  others. 

12.  His  childhood  was  like  many  others,  the  happiest  part  of 
his  hfe. 

13.  To  add  to  their  burdens,  they  suffered  from  the  exactions 
of  the  nobles  and  land-owners. 

14.  The  clergyman  announced  that  there  would  be  no  prayer- 
meeting  that  week  as  usual. 

15.  Every  advantage  manufacturers  desire  can  be  had,  and  sub- 
stantial aid  when  deserving. 

16.  Our  wedding-cakes  are  got  up  in  a  style  equal  to  any  baker 
in  the  city. 

17.  The  opinions  of  people  in  those  days  differed  so  much  from 
the  present  time  that  he  was  popular  though  vicious. 


lOO  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

1 8.  And  they  continued  steadfastly  in  the  apostles'  doctrine  and 
fellowship,  and  in  breaking  of  bread,  and  in  prayers. 

19.  One  would  think  there  were  more  sophists  than  one  had 
a  hand  in  the  argument. 

EXERCISE  XXXIII. 

Length  of  Sentences. 

Direction.  —  Improve  these  sentences  by  breaking  them  up  into  shorter 
ones. 

1.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  distinguished  author  will  be  spared 
to  fill  up  this  gap  himself,  when,  in  his  own  words,  there  will  be  a 
"  continuous  history  of  the  French  occupation  of  the  Continent," 
written  we  may  add,  with  the  most  painstaking  research,  and  the 
most  praiseworthy  impartiality,  combined  with  such  picturesque 
and  graphic  narrative  power  as  have  already  made  it  the  great 
authority  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats,  and  will,  we  doubt  not, 
long  maintain  it  in  that  most  honorable  and  deserved  position. 

2.  There  is  a  great  controversy  about  the  most  convenient  and 
genteel  way  of  holding  your  plate  at  meals  ;  some  stick  it  between 
the  frame  and  the  back  of  the  chair,  which  is  an  excellent  expe- 
dient, where  the  make  of  the  chair  will  allow  it ;  others,  for  fear 
the  plate  should  fall,  grasp  it  so  firmly  that  their  thumb  reaches  to 
the  middle  of  the  hollow  :  which,  however,  if  your  thumb  be  dry, 
is  no  secure  method ;  and  therefore,  in  that  case,  I  advise  your 
wetting  the  ball  of  it  with  your  tongue ;  as  to  that  absurd  practice 
of  letting  the  back  of  the  plate  lie  leaning  on  the  hollow  of  your 
hand,  which  some  ladies  recommend,  it  is  universally  exploded, 
being  liable  to  so  many  accidents. 

3.  Notwithstanding  the  urgent  entreaties  of  his  friends,  for  him 
to  abandon  his  enterprise,  Columbus,  the  discoverer  of  America, 
set  sail  from  Palos  on  the  morning  of  Friday,  the  3d  of  August, 
1492,  and  after  a  stormy  and  difficult  voyage  he  landed  on  one  of 
the  West  India  Islands  on  the  4th  day  of  October  in  the  same 
year ;  although  his  sailors  had  always  despaired  of  ever  reaching 


CLEARNESS.  lOI 

land,  and  had  been  wishing  during  the  last  few  weeks  of  their 
voyage,  for  Columbus  to  return  with  them  to  Spain. 

4.  To  the  apprehension  of  the  Corporation  of  Trinity  Univer- 
sity, and  the  Board  of  Regents  of  Victoria  University,  that,  were 
the  proposed  University  Professoriate  and  the  new  University 
College  in  the  same  building,  i.e.  the  building  at  present  occupied 
by  University  College,  then  University  college  would,  by  its  loca- 
tion under  the  University  roof,  its  proximity  to  the  University 
Professoriate,  overshadow  the  other  colleges  and  put  them  into 
an  unfair  comparison  with  it  —  to  this  apprehension  must  be  as- 
signed the  motive  of  the  amendments  proposing  that  the  con- 
federating colleges,  University  College  included,  shall  be  placed 
on  precisely  the  same  footing  towards  the  common  University ; 
which,  being  interpreted,  is  that  the  University  Professoriate  and 
University  College  shall  have  separate  buildings  provided  for  them. 

EXERCISE  XXXIV. 

Clearness. 

Direction.  —  In  this  miscellaneous  exercise  point  out  the  cause  of  the 
ambiguity  or  obscurity,  and  then  reconstruct  the  sentence  so  as  to  make  the 
meaning  clear. 

Part  I. 

1.  The  interjection  more  nearly  resembles  the  verb  than  any 
other  part  of  speech. 

2.  The  wife  of  this  distinguished  lecturer  accompanied  him  to 
the  city ;  and  though  her  hair  is  quite  white  and  apparently  his 
senior,  she  walks  with  a  firm  step. 

3.  After  some  difficulty,  we  reached  the  gate  where  we  parted. 

4.  Children  in  the  East  have  their  own  pet  elephants,  and  the 
big  creatures  enjoy  a  frolic  with  the  little  ones,  as  well  as  they  do 
themselves. 

5.  While  oiling  the  gearing  of  the  machine  his  hand  caught  in 
it,  nearly  taking  it  off. 

6.  When  Julius  Caesar  was  lampooned  by  Catullus,  he  invited 


I02  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

him  to  a  supper  and  treated  him  with  such  generous  civiHty  that 
he  made  him  his  friend  ever  after. 

7.  By  the  articles  subsisting  between  us,  on  the  day  of  marriage, 
you  agreed  to  pay  down  the  sum  of  eighty  thousand  dollars. 

8.  He  forgets  the  gratitude  he  owes  to  those  that  helped  him 
when  he  was  poor,  and  John  Smith  in  particular. 

9.  He  told  his  servant  to  call  upon  his  friend  to  give  informa- 
tion, and  not  to  leave  him  till  he  started. 

10.  I  thought  that  the  safest  plan  was  to  praise  everything  he  did. 

11.  Classify  the  following,  analyzing  the  derivatives  and  com- 
pounds, and  translate  each  into  an  equivalent  phrase. 

12.  Although  the  people  were  rid  of  the  locusts,  they  were  not 
rid  of  the  trouble  which  they  caused  them. 

13.  About  the  Falls  hung  a  cloud  or  mist,  and  which  was  in- 
creasing every  moment. 

14.  It  is  necessary  that  God  should  choose  for  us,  and  there- 
with to  be  content. 

15.  May  asked  her  sister  if  she  would  bring  her  her  work-bas- 
ket, as  she  wished  to  make  something  for  her  mother. 

16.  With  the  beloved  daughter  she  kept  up  the  most  intimate 
fellowship,  though  she  tried  to  hide  from  her  all  knowledge  of  her 
father's  intense  cruelty  to  her. 

1 7.  When  the  strangers  spoke  of  the  ferocity  of  his  dogs,  he 
said  they  were  ill-bred  curs. 

1 8.  He  told  his  friend  that  his  brother  was  surprised  that  he 
had  given  so  small  a  sum,  for  he  was  a  very  rich  man,  in  spite  of 
his  recent  losses,  compared  with  himself. 

19.  Never  allow  the  muzzle  of  a  gun  to  point  towards  yourself 
or  any  other  person. 

20.  Tell  him,  if  he  is  wrong,  he  should  retrace  his  steps. 

21.  His  remains  were  committed  to  that  bourne  whence  no 
traveller  returns,  attended  by  his  family  and  friends. 

22.  The  laborers  crowd  into  the  towns  to  enter  into  competi- 
tion with  you,  to  lower  the  rate  of  wages,  and  to  huddle  popula- 
tion together  until  healthful  dwellings  become  impossible. 


CLEARNESS.  IO3 

23.  Passing  over  the  bridge  in  a  carriage,  the  horses  became 
unmanageable,  the  carriage  was  on  the  edge  of  a  precipice,  the 
two  leaders  fell  over  and  were  killed,  but  Pascal's  life  was  pre- 
served through  a  breaking  of  the  traces. 

24.  From  this  very  diversity  there  springs  a  multifariousness  of 
aspects  under  which  it  may  be  considered,  that  is  sufficient  of 
itself  to  inspire  the  subject  with  interest. 

25.  Let  us  create  more  of  that  spirit  that  I  have  tried  to  convey 
above,  and  less  of  the  present  wrangling,  how  much  more  profit- 
ably could  our  weekly  meetings  be  held. 

Part  II. 

26.  The  Spectator  discussed  and  condemned  the  evils  of  the 
day,  as  well  as  all  other  topics  which  might  please  and  profit  its 
readers. 

27.  Tickled  with  the  flattery,  like  a  little  fool,  I  went  to  work, 
and  bitterly  did  I  rue  the  day. 

28.  This  king  encouraged  not  only  learned  men,  but  also 
founded  a  number  of  schools  of  learning. 

29.  "  Bois-Guilbert? "  said  Cedric,  in  the  half-arguing  tone, 
which  the  habit  of  living  among  dependents  had  accustomed  him 
to  employ,  and  resembled  a  man  who  talks  to  himself  rather  than 
to  those  around  him. 

30.  He  gave  a  whimsical  account  of  the  sudden  apparition  of 
one  of  them  at  his  gay  apartments  in  the  Temple,  who  may  have 
been  a  welcome  visitor  at  his  squalid  quarters  in  Green  Arbour 
Court. 

31.  The  picture  of  the  village  pastor  in  this  poem,  which  we 
have  already  printed,  was  taken  in  part  from  the  character  of  his 
pathos,  embodied  likewise  recollections  of  his  brother  Henry. 

32.  You  forget  that  those  were  real  dinners  where  people  were 
hungry  and  thirsty,  and  you  met  a  very  miscellaneous  company. 

33.  The  house  was  crowded  to  its  utmost  capacity ;  every 
available  seat  was  occupied  and  many  remained  standing  till  the 
close. 


104  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

34.  We  have  seen  that  there  are  many  angles  of  different  mag- 
nitudes, which  have  the  same  sine. 

35.  When  I  see  a  man  flattering  the  people,  making  great  pro- 
fessions of  attachment  to  liberty,  who  is-  in  private  life  a  tyrant,  I 
say  to  myself,  "  Look  out,  good  people  !  that  fellow  will  set  you  to 
turning  grindstones." 

36.  The  polar  bears  live  on  seal  and  walrus,  crawling  stealthily 
up  to  the  former  on  the  ice-floes  and  catching  them  ;  while  of  the 
walrus  only  the  young  are  caught,  for  an  old  walrus  is  twice  as  big 
as  Bruin. 

37.  Obrutscheff  regards  war  as  inevitable,  and  urges  immediate 
mobilization,  and  that  not  a  moment  should  be  lost  in  pushing  on 
to  Herat  and  Candahar. 

38.  The  intellectual  qualities  of  the  youth  were  superior  to  those 
of  his  raiment. 

39.  The  same  night,  while  Crozier  was  at  Carlton,  Riel  sent 
him  word  to  come  for  his  dead,  and  afterwards  to  Prince  Albert, 
and  said  if  they  did  not  come  he  would  bury  them. 

40.  He  is  said  to  prefer  plain  food ;  he  is  also  said  to  be  ex- 
tremely fond  of  bread,  and  dotes  on  water. 

41.  The  young  man  did  not  want  natural  talents;  but  the 
father  of  him  was  a  coxcomb,  who  affected  being  a  fine  gentleman 
so  unmercifully  that  he  could  not  endure  in  his  sight,  or  the  fre- 
quent mention  of,  one  who  was  his  son,  growing  into  manhood 
and  thrusting  him  out  of  the  gay  world. 

42.  He  advanced  against  the  old  man,  imitating  his  address, 
his  face,  and  career,  as  well  as  the  vigor  of  his  horse  and  his  own 
skill  would  allow. 

43.  When  thousands  are  left  without  pity  and  unattended  on  a 
field  of  battle,  amid  the  insults  of  an  enraged  foe  and  the  tramp- 
ling of  horses,  while  the  blood  from  their  wounds,  freezing  as  it 
flows,  binds  them  to  the  earth,  and  they  are  exposed  to  the  pierc- 
ing air,  it  must  be,  indeed,  a  painful  scene. 

44.  The  bull  I  am  speaking  of  was  granted  five  years  ago  to 
the  faithful  people  of  Spain,  by  the  late  pope,  which  a  gentleman 


CLEARNESS.  10$ 

of  the  army  took  accidentally  from  a  master  of  a  ship,  whose  name 
is  Peter  de  Zologa,  in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  as  it  is  signed  by  himself 
in  the  same  bull,  and  may  be  seen  at  the  publishers. 

45.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  when  you  hear  a  farmer's  boy  set 
down  as  a  hard  case,  you  find  his  father  to  blame  for  it,  for  he  ha?" 
been  too  harsh  and  arbitrary. 

46.  In  order  further  to  advertise  my  business,  I  will  send  my 
new  pipe  organ  to  any  one  sending  me  $75,  provided  I  receive 
fifty  names,  the  same  as  given  away  at  the  concert  of  December 
the  3d. 

47.  The  critical  position  of  the  new  free  state,  which  is  being 
founded  in  Africa  by  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  is  owing  to  its  pres- 
ent jurisdiction  on  the  v^ongo,  being  an  island,  and  to  the  rights 
it  possesses  on  the  sea  coast  to  the  north  of  the  Congo,  being  cov- 
eted by  France. 

48.  This  they  effected  by  conveying  their  letters  to  her  by 
means  of  a  brewer  that  supplied  the  family  with  ale,  through  a 
chink  in  the  wall  of  her  apartment. 

49.  We  live  in  the  past  by  a  knowledge  of  its  history,  and  we 
have  hope  and  anticipation  in  the  future. 

50.  A  brazen  statue  of  Justice  stood  in  the  public  square,  once 
in  an  ancient  city,  whose  name  I  no  longer  remember,  raised  aloft 
on  a  column,  upholding  the  scales  in  its  left  hand,  and  in  its  right 
a  sword. 

51.  These  funds  will  be  available  for  meeting  such  expenses, 
and  to  enable  the  committee  to  carry  out  the  scheme  properly. 

52.  Two  nights  ago,  I  lectured  to  a  large  assembly  in  this  hall, 
nearly  all  belonging  to  your  country. 

53.  The  progress  of  civilization  works  for  land  as  against  labor, 
shutting  men  off  from  free  access  to  mother  earth,  whose  bounteous 
breasts  are  stored  with  the  food  of  men,  making  the  landless  in- 
creasingly dependent. 


f06  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON   XXII. 

2.   STRENGTH. 

Strength  consists  in  constructing  sentences  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  full  force  to  the  thought  or  meaning  they  contain. 

When  to  be  sought.  —  In  some  kinds  of  composition,  such  as 
judicial  opinions  and  text-books  of  science,  all  that  is  necessary  is 
to  make  the  language  clear.  If,  however,  the  communication  of 
knowledge  is  not  the  only  aim,  if  the  reader's  attention  cannot 
be  taken  for  granted,  the  language  must  be  more  than  clear,  it 
must  be  forcible. 

How  promoted.  —  As  strength  in  expression  depends  largely 
on  the  manner  in  which  a  sentence  is  formed,  much  may  be  gained 
by  attending  to  the  following  points  :  Number  of  Words,  the  Order 
of  Words,  Forcible  Words,  Connection  and  Transition,  Variety. 

Number  of  Words. 

Every  word  that  does  not  add  to  the  meaning  of  a  sentence, 
enfeebles  it.  Hence,  a  sentence  is  strengthened  by  rejecting 
every  clause,  phrase,  or  word,  that  is  redundant.  Thus,  "  Hands 
off !  "  is  more  forcible  than  "  Keep  your  hands  off !  "  ;  "  Strange  !  ", 
than  "That  is  very  strange  !  " 

Among  the  principal  violations  of  brevity  are :  Tautology, 
Redundancy,  and  Verbosity. 

Caution.  —  Beginners  must  not  nui  away  Vv'ith  the  idea  that 
every  sentence  should  be  constructed  with  the  smallest  number 
of  words  possible.  There  are  many  considerations  to  be  taken 
into  account  in  determining  just  how  many  words  should  be  used. 
The  nature  of  the  subject,  the  character  of  the  treatment,  as  well 
as  the  capacity  and  intelligence  of  the  persons  addressed,  demand 
variations  that  only  a  due  attention  to  these  things  can  justify. 
Commonplace  thoughts  on  familiar  topics  admit  briefer  expres- 


STRENGTH.  lO/ 

sion  than  original  ideas ;  greater  conciseness  is  demanded  in  a 
book  than  in  a  newspaper  or  a  speech  ;  intelHgent  people  require 
less  explanation  than  ignorant  ones.  In  any  case,  one  should 
avoid  excessive  conciseness  on  the  one  hand,  and  excessive  dif- 
fuseness  on  the  other. 

1 .  Tautology  is  the  fault  of  saying  again  in  other  words  what 
has  just  been  said. 

Examples.  —  '■^ False  ////^-representations."    "  Umbrageous  shadey 
•'  He  was  by  no  means  deficient  in  the  subordinate  and  limited 
virtue  which  alleviates  and  relieves  the  wants  of  others."     In  each 
of  these  expressions  one  of  the  italicized  words  may  be  omitted* 
with  advantage. 

When  Permissible.  — What  might  appear  Tautology  by  a  strict 
rendering  of  the  rule  is  allowable 

a.  When  one  word  does  not  express  the  full  sense  intended  ; 
as,  Subject-matter,  part  and  parcel,  ways  and  means. 

b.  For  greater  emphasis ;  as,  "  The  head  and  front  of  his 
offending."     "  He  ruled  with  might  and  maini" 

c.  In  strong  passion ;  as,  "  I  am  astonished,  I  am  shocked,  to 
hear  such  principles  confessed." 

2.  Redundancy,  or  pleonasm,  consists  in  the  addition  of  use- 
less words. 

Examples.  —  "They  returned  back  again  to  the  same , c\ty  from 
whence  they  c3M\e  forth."     "Throughout  "his  whole  career." 

When  Permissible.  —  Redundancy  is  permissible  when  neces- 
sary to  important  statements,  to  give  emphasis,  and  in  the  language 
of  passion.  Sometimes  what  is  said  directly  may  be  said  again 
indirectly ;  the  abstract  may  be  reproduced  in  the  concrete  form ; 
the  literal,  in  a  metaphor ;  an  object  may  be  presented  from  a 
new  point  of  view ;  an  argim>ent  may  be  stated  in  a  variety  of 
forms.  Thus,  "We  have  seen  it  ivith  our  own  eyes.''''  "Kings 
will  be  tyrants  from  policy  a///*?//  subjects  are  rebels  from  principle." 

Epithets.  — The  handling  of  epithets  requires  great  care  on  the 
part  of  beginners.  With  them  the  tendency  generally  is  to  heap 
up  adjectives  that  add  neither  force  nor  beauty  to  the  sentence. 


I08  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Although  it  is  not  always  well  to  have  the  waves  "  silvery,"  the 
sun  "  glorious,"  the  snow  "  feathery,"  and  the  groves  "  shady," 
yet  whenever  force,  beauty,  or  an  additional  interest  can  be 
secured  by  the  use  of  an  adjective,  or  even  two,  there  need  be  no 
scruple  about  employing  them  ;  as,  "The  iideless  Mediterranean." 

3.  Verbosity  consists  in  a  diffuse  mode  of  expression  which  so 
pervades  the  sentence  that  the  only  remedy  is  to  recast  the  whole 
in  fewer  words. 

Example.  —  "  She  regrets  that  the  multiplicity  of  his  engage- 
ments precludes  the  possibility  of  her  accepting  your  polite  invi- 
tation." 

Circumlocution,  or  Paraphrasing,  which  is  confessedly  one 
form  of  Verbosity,  is  permissible  as  a  means  of  explanation  or 
illustration.  It  is  a  method  of  diluting  strong  thoughts  so  as  to 
suit  them  to  weak  or  uninformed  minds.  It  may  also  be  used 
with  advantage  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  a  word,  or  to  give  greater 
prominence  to  some  point  of  importance. 

Prolixity,  another  form  of  Verbosity,  consists  in  enumerating 
unimportant  or  obvious  particulars  that  might  have  been  left  to 
the  reader  to  supply ;  as,  "  On  receiving  the  news,  he  arose  from 
his  chair,  put  on  his  coat  and  hat,  took  his  umbrella,  went  down 
stairs,  walked  to  the  railway  station,  bought  a  ticket  for  the  city, 
and  started  in  the  eleven  o'clock  train."  "  On  receiving  this 
message,  he  started  for  the  city  by  the  eleven  o'clock  train." 

Strength  is  generally  gained  by  using  brief  modes  of  expression  ; 
as, — 

1.  Omitting  words  easily  supplied;  as,  "What  makes  ambition 
virtue?  —  the  sense  of  honor."  Compare  wiih  "  It  is  the  sense 
of  honor  that  makes  ambition  virtue." 

2.  Expressing  in  a  single  word  the  idea  contained  in  a  phrase 
or  clause;  as,  "An  hitclligiblc  book"  for  "A  book  that  may  be 
easily  understood." 

3.  Rejecting  prefacing  or  introductory  expressions  ;  as,  ^'^  I  think 
I  should  be  entitled  to  speak  on  this  subject."  "  There  is  nothing 
so  tiresome  as  listening  to  a  speaker  who  has  no  message." 


STRENGTH.  lOQ 

On  the  other  hand,  strength  may  sometimes  be  gained  by  ex- 
pressing an  idea  with  much  fulness,  or  even  by  the  repetition  of 
a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  ;  as,  "  Act,  act  in  the  living  present  "  ; 
"  Deep,  deep  in  the  living  rock  beneath  you  "  ;  "My  merit  was 
to  support  every  right,  every  privilege,  every  franchise  in  this  my 
adopted  country." 

EXERCISE   XXXV. 
Number  of  Words. 

Direction.  —  Rewrite  these  sentences,  omitting  all  superfluous  words,  and 
note  the  effect. 

1.  You  are  welcome. 

2.  What  am  I?     I  am  nothing. 

3.  I  hope  that  you  may  be  very  successful. 
'  4.  Can  you  really  be  a  philosopher? 

5.  If  little  is  said,  the  matter  may  soon  be  set  right. 

6.  You  may  let  our  blood  be  upon  our  own  heads. 

7.  Let  him  who  sees  any  chance  to  save  himself  take  advantage 
of  his  opportunity. 

8.  Speech  about  a  man's  self  ought  to  be  seldom  used,  and  it 
ought  to  be  well  chosen. 

9.  Thanks  be  unto  God,  men  have  at  last  begun  to  under- 
stand one  another's  rights,  and  have  at  last  begun  to  feel  for  one 
another's  wrongs. 

10.  The  different  departments  of  science  and  of  art  mutually 
reflect  light  on  one  another. 

1 1 .  The  universal  opinion  of  all  the  people  is,  that  the  prisoner 
who  is  in  the  prison,  is  innocent. 

12.  The  dawn  is  overcast,  the  morning  lowers,  and  heavily  in 
clouds  brings  on  the  day. 

13.  I  never  was  so  astonished  before  in  the  whole  course  of  my 
existence. 

14.  He  was  a  man  of  powerful  strength. 

15.  All  praised  his  magnanimity  and  greatness  of  mind. 

16.  He  has  arrived  at  the  final  completion  of  his  work. 


no  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

1 7.  He  stood  gazing  at  the  spangled  canopy,  which  appeared 
to  be  Ht  up  with  innumerable  orbs. 

18.  It  was  a  cool,  deliberately  planned  homicide. 

19.  It  was  said  that  two  eagles  sent  forth  by  Jupiter,  one  from 
the  east  and  one  from  the  west,  met  at  Delphi  at  the  same  time. 

20.  As  you  proceed  forward  down  the  lawn,  you  will  see  two 
gates  opposite  each  other. 

21.  We  all  of  us  complain  of  the  shortness  of  time. 

22.  Beingconsciousof  his  own  integrity,  he  disdained  submission. 

23.  During  the  time  of  peace,  Napoleon  once  more  returned 
back  to  France. 

24.  He  is  an  American  ambassador  sent  by  the  United  States. 

25.  There  is  no  doubt  that  his  conduct  was  reprehensible. 

26.  The  house  was  closely  crowded  with  a  very  large  audience. 

27.  There  is  no  doubt  your  head  aches,  trying  to  make  some- 
thing of  my  description. 

28.  They  did  not  hesitate  or  pause,  but  with  one  accord  they 
grasped  each  other's  hand. 

29.  They  told  us  stories  about  what  they  had  experienced  in  Japan. 

30.  He  never  attended  to  the  interests  of  those  whom  he  had 
the  honor  to  represent. 

31.  This  will,  indeed,  be  rough  work,  it  will  be  iconoclasm  ;  but 
it  is  certainly  the  way  to  get  at  truth. 

32.  The  aim  and  end  of  our  institutions  is,  that  we  may  think 
what  we  like  and  say  what  we  think. 

33.  On  arriving  at  the  station,  he  stepped  from  the  train,  looked 
about  for  a  cab,  hired  one,  got  into  it,  told  the  driver  to  move  on, 
and  reached  his  house  without  accident. 

34.  Myra  who  was  a  new  beginner  felt  shy  about  taking  the 
new  position  to  which  she  had  just  been  appointed. 

35.  If  men  of  eminence  receive  reproaches  which  they  do  not 
deserve,  they  hkewise   receive  praises  which  are  not  due  them. 

36.  Mrs.  Hope  thought  bright  colors  unbecoming  a  Christian, 
and  she  thought  them  especially  unbecoming  one  who  held  a 
responsible  position 


STRENGTH.  Ill 


LESSON     XXIII. 

STRENGTH.  — ORDER  OF  WORDS. 

Much  of  the  force  of  a  sentence  depends  on  the  order  in  which 
the  parts  are  arranged. 

1.  Emphatic  Words. — Strength  as  well  as  Clearness  is  pro- 
moted by  disposing  of  the  important  words  in  the  place  where 
they  will  make  the  greatest  impression. 

Examples.  —  "  To  know  some  Latin,  even  if  it  be  nothing  but  a 
few  Latin  roots,  is  useful^  Better  thus  :  "  It  is  useful,"  etc.  ^''  Now 
is  your  time."  "  Such  a  show  I  never  saw  before."  "  Up  flew 
the  price." 

2.  Closing. — Care  should  be  taken  in  bringing  a  sentence  to 
a  close.  The  mind  naturally  dwells  on  the  last  word  and  is  disap- 
pointed when,  contrary  to  expectation,  it  finds  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence  some  unimportant  or  merely  relational  word.  For  this 
reason  it  is  rarely  well  to  end  a  sentence  with  an  adverb,  a  prepo- 
sition, or  even  a  preposition  and  the  pronoun  "  it." 

Examples.  —  "  According  to  Southey,  the  laws  governed  form- 
erly." "  This  is  a  question  I  did  not  expect,  and  I  must  ask  time 
to  reflect  on  it."  These  sentences  would  gain  in  force  if  written 
thus:  "Formerly,  according  to  Southey,  the  laws  governed." 
"This  is  a  question  I  did  not  expect,  and  therefore  I  must  ask 
time  for  reflection." 

We  may,  however,  end  with  a  particle  when  it  is  very  closely 
connected  with  a  leading  word  :  as.  "  This  must  be  attended  to." 
"  That  was  well  thought  of.'^ 

Again,  such  words  may  close  a  sentence  when  they  wouid  create 
a  stiff"ness  if  placed  in  their  grammatical  position.  Thus,  if  "of" 
were  placed  before  "  which  "  in  the  follovt'ing  sentence,  the  con- 
struction would  be  felt  to  be  harsh.  "  Ministers'  wives  have  duties 
laid  upon  them  which  a  houie  body  hke  me  can  hardly  con- 
ceive of." 


112  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Sometimes  an  adverb  or  pronoun  is  made  empliatic  by  being 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  People  have  found  out 
their  need  of  civil  government,  and  have  instituted  it  accordingly T 
"  Dying  for  a  principle  seems  to  me  a  nobler  act  than  scolding 
for  itr 

Suspense.- — ^ Similarly,  unimportant  phrases  and  clauses  should 
generally  be  kept  from  the  end  of  the  sentence.  This,  however, 
must  not  be  construed  to  mean  that  the  periodic  sentence  is  to  be 
used  to  the  exclusion  of  the  loose,  or  to  imply  that  all  phrases  or 
clauses  are  to  precede  the  main  statement.  As  the  periodic 
structure  keeps  the  mind  on  the  stretch  until  the  last  word  has 
been  reached,  it  makes  a  deeper  impression  by  securing  closer 
attention.  Still  if  carried  too  far,  it  would  lose  its  effect,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  loose  construction  must  be  freely  intermingled  with 
the  periodic. 

Phrases  and  clauses  may  stand  at  the  close  of  the  sentence 
when  they  are  emphatic  j  as,  "  His  drawings  are  beautiful,  not  to 
mentio7i  his  paintings" 

When  they  are  clearly  subordinate,  it  is  generally  best  to  place 
them  before  the  principal  assertion. 

Examples.  —  "  He  mounted  his  camel,  and  thus  performed  the 
circuits  round  the  Caaba,  being  too  weak  and  infirm  to  go  on  foot." 
"  He  slew  sixty-three  of  the  camels  with  his  own  hand,  when  they 
were  to  be  offered  up  in  sacrifice."  These  sentences  may  be  made 
more  forcible  by  placing  the  clauses  in  italics  at  the  beginning. 

4.  Climax. — Strength  may  be  gained  by  the  arrangement  of 
the  parts  of  discourse  in  the  order  required  by  the  Climax.  The 
Climax,  usually  reckoned  a  figure  of  speech,  consists  in  arranging 
the  parts  of  an  expression  in  the  order  of  their  strength  —  the 
weakest  standing  first.  Words,  phrases,  clauses,  sentences,  para- 
graphs, and  even  the  leading  divisions  of  a  subject  may  be  arranged 
in  climacteric  order. 

When  a  weaker  expression  or  thought  follows  a  stronger,  the 
mind  is  disappointed,  and  receives  but  a  feeble  impression  from 
the  whole. 


STRENGTH.  I  I  3 

Anti-Climax  consists  in  arranging  the  parts  in  an  order  the 
opposite  of  that  followed  in  the  Climax  —  an  arrangement  that  is 
always  weak,  except  for  the  purpose  of  burlesque  or  ridicule. 

Examples.  —  "  In  this  state  of  mind,  Hfe  itself  is  a  burden,  and 
ivery  object  is  gloomy."  Place  the  weaker  member  first,  and 
observe  how  much  more  forcible  the  sentence  becomes ;  thus  : 
"  In  this  state  of  mind,  every  object  is  gloomy,  and  life  itself  a 
burden." 

"  Contentment  makes  a  man  pass  through  fire  and  not  be 
burned,  through  hunger  and  nakedness  yet  want  for  nothing, 
through  seas  and  not  be  drowned."  Write :  "  Contentedness 
makes  a  man  pass  through  hunger  and  nakedness  yet  want  for 
nothing,  through  seas  and  not  be  drowned,  through  fire  and  not 
be  burned." 

EXERCISE  XXXVI. 

Order  of  Words. 

Direction.  —  Examine  these  sentences;  change  the  order  of  the  words 
whenever  by  so  doing  you  can  increase  the  force;  defend  the  present  order 
when  you  make  no  change. 

1.  Dryden  possessed,  in  a  pre-eminent  degree,  the  power  of 
reasoning  in  verse,  as  we  have  said. 

2.  So  able  a  critic  was  never  so  free  from  fastidiousness. 

3.  No  writer  has  carried  the  flattery  of  dedication  to  a  greater 
length,  it  must  be  owned. 

4.  We  have  prostrated  ourselves  at  the  foot  of  the  throne,  we 
have  remonstrated,  we  have  petitioned. 

5.  If  you  give  this  clause  a  fair  construction,  what  is  the  true 
meaning  of  it  ? 

6.  The  Seventh  Regiment  marched  last  of  all. 

7.  He  was  indebted  for  many  a  good  suggestion  to  her. 

8.  Smith  started  on  a  trip  to  California,  but  died  on  the  way, 
having  poor  health. 

9.  After  working  hard  all  day  he  soon  went  to  sleep,  being  very 
tired. 


114  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

10.  The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  repress  the  practice  of 
throwing  stones  as  far  as  possible. 

11.  A  quaint  or  poetic  thought  appears  in  every  line  of  it. 

12.  What  pen  can  describe  the  tears,  the  lamentations,  the 
agonies,  the  animated  remonstrances  of  the  unfortunate  prisoners  ! 

13.  The  power  of  man,  his  glory,  and  his  greatness,  depend  on 
essential  qualities. 

14.  The  approaching  marriage  of  Bonanza  Mackay's  daughter 
to  the  prince  of  Galati  is  to  be  celebrated  with  great  simpHcity, 
so  it  is  said. 

15.  There  is  one  subject  more  I  wish  to  speak  of. 

16.  She  came  up,  listened,  stopped  in  bewilderment,  caught 
the  infection,  looked,  and  began  dancing,  too. 

1 7.  Contentedness  is  a  duty,  a  blessing,  and  a  privilege. 

18.  He  doubled  his  fist  and  looked  at  it  as  if  he  wanted  to  hit 
somebody  a  pernicious  punch  with  it. 

19.  About  one  in  a  hundred  will  be  found  safe  and  agreeable 
persons  to  deal  and  live  with. 

20.  There  are  three  real  saints,  at  least,  among  the  women,  to 
one  among  the  men,  in  every  denomination. 

21.  As  to  that  process,  I  will  give  you  a  specimen  of  one  way 
of  managing  it  if  you  like. 

22.  A  busy  stream  ran  along  the  ravine,  and  we  could  catch  an 
occasional  glimpse  of  it. 

23.  We  would  like  dinner  immediately,  as  we  must  resume  our 
journey  in  an  hour  if  possible. 

24.  There,  thanks  to  your  quick  temper,  I  think  I  have  roused 
you  sufficiently. 

25.  We  again  set  out  after  getting  nicely  warmed,  and  being 
supplied  with  some  hot  bricks,  which  the  woman  of  the  house 
insisted  upon  our  taking. 

26.  Disease  and  pain  often  sour  the  temper  and  contract  the 
heart,  if  poverty  makes  men  thieves. 

27.  These  are  such  words  as  Columbus  himself  would  have 
made  use  of. 


STRENGTH.  I  I  5 

28.  He  has  expressed  some  doubts  that  will  not  raise  him  in 
the  opinion  of  some  of  our  modern  millenarians  assuredly. 

29.  I  have  not  taken  particular  pains  to  iind  out  whether  Birch- 
all  is  a  moral  idiot  or  not,  but  I  know  there  are  such  people,  and 
lots  of  them,  too. 

30.  No  earthly  judge  can  touch  him  now. 

31.  He  forced  him  to  say  it  at  last. 

32.  A  time  was  at  hand  when  the  seven  vials  of  the  Apocalypse 
were  poured  forth  over  those  pleasant  countries  ;  a  time  of  slaugh- 
ter, beggary,  infamy,  famine,  despair,  slavery. 

^^.  She  would  not  be  human,  if  the  tears  did  not  start  unbidden 
to  her  eyes,  as  she  turns  back  the  pages  of  her  life. 

34.  Much  was  forgiven  to  such  a  man,  —  hollow  friendship,  vio- 
lated faith,  ungenerous  enmity. 

35.  I  cannot  conceive  whence  this  man  has  gained  his  notions 
of  Christianity  :  he  has  the  most  inveterate  malice  against  errors 
in  conscience,  and  the  most  evangelical  charity  for  errors  in  arith- 
metic. 

36.  The  students  of  the  past  toiled,  explored,  constructed  for 
us. 

37.  He  would  be  heard  by  the  most  profligate  minister  with 
deference  and  respect,  whenever  an  important  question  called  for 
his  opinion  in  Parliament. 

38.  He,  deserted  by  his  friends,  was  compelled  to  have  recourse 
to  his  enemies  for  aid. 

39.  The  great  English  nation  was  then  formed  ;  the  national 
character  then  began  to  exhibit  those  peculiarities  which  it  has 
ever  since  retained;  and  our  fathers  then  became  emphatically 
islanders.     (Make  "then"  emphatic.) 

40.  I  rushed  from  the  room  at  once,  leaving  the  wretch  where 
he  stood,  with  his  tale  half  told,  horror-stricken  at  his  crime. 

41.  We  will  not  pretend  to  guess  what  our  grandchildren  may 
think  of  the  character  of  Lord  Byron,  as  exhibited  in  his  poetry. 


Il6  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XXIV. 

STRENGTH.  — FORCIBLE  WORDS. 

There  are  some  classes  of  words  that  convey  ideas  with  pecuUar 
energy  to  the  mind.  Among  these  are  (i)  famihar  words,  (2) 
particular  terms,  and  (3)  concrete  terms.  The  first  of  these  have 
great  force,  because  we  more  fully  and  readily  realize  their  mean- 
ing ;  the  second  and  third,  because  they  present  to  the  mind  ideas 
that  it  can  easily  grasp. 

ExajHple.  —  "I  have  neither  the  necessaries  of  life,  nor  the 
means  of  procuring  them."  Instead  of  this,  write  :  "  I  have  not 
a  crust  of  bread,  nor  a  penny  to  buy  one." 

Idioms,  Proverbs,  and  Quotations. 

A  thought  may  sometimes  be  expressed  forcibly  by  being  put 
into  idiomatic  language,  or  by  being  thrown  into  the  form  of  a 
proverb  or  of  a  pithy  quotation.  Commonplace  and  thread-bare 
expressions  must  be  avoided. 

Examples.  —  "  He  is  out  of  his  head  "  is  a  vigorous  way  of  say- 
ing "  He  is  not  in  possession  of  his  right  senses."  "  A  burnt  child 
dreads  the  fire  "  is  a  proverbial  expression  which  conveys  with 
energy  the  idea  that  "A  person  who  has  been  injured  by  an 
object,  will  take  good  care  to  avoid  it  in  the  future." 

Connection  and  Transition. 

The  strength  of  a  sentence  may  often  be  increased  by  a  careful 
use  of  the  words  that  mark  connection  or  transition.  These  are, 
chiefly,  the  relative  pronouns,  the  conjunctions,  and  the  preposi- 
tions. No  rules  can  be  framed  to  suit  all  cases  that  arise  ;  but 
from  the  subjoined  examples  it  will  be  seen  that  the  too  frequent 
repetition  of  connectives  is  sometimes  a  source  of  weakness,  and 
that  when,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  desirable,  the  transition  from 


STRENGTH.  11/ 

one  object  to  another  should  not  be  too  rapid,  the  conjunction 
may  be  repeated  with  advantage.  One  of  the  most  common  faults 
of  beginners  is  the  excessive  use  of  and,  but,  when,  and  other  such 
words. 

Examples.  —  "  His  clothes  were  of  seedy  black,  and  very  much 
worn ;  and  a  silk  handkerchief  was  twisted  around  his  neck,  aiid 
he  had  no  collar,  and  his  shirt-bosom  was  rumpled  and  soiled." 

In  this  sentence,  the  first  three  atid^s  would  be  better  omitted. 
In  the  following,  the  and's  should  be  retained  because  they  help 
to  emphasize  each  of  the  particulars. 

"  And  the  rain  descended,  and  the  floods  came,  and  the  winds 
blew,  and  beat  upon  that  house  ;  and  it  fell :  and  great  was  the  fall 
of  it." 

The  omission  of  conjunctions  or  other  connective  words,  aids  in 
expressing  animation  or  rapidity ;  as,  "  I  came,  saw,  conquered." 


EXERCISE  XXXVII. 

Forcible  Words. 

Direction.  —  Make  the  sentences  more  forcible  by  employing  some  of  the 
expedients  mentioned  in  the  preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Had  he  intended  to  keep  the  country  in  slavery,  he  should 
have  kept  it  poor. 

2.  They  knew  that  he  was  false  and  dishonest. 

3.  Along  the  coast  of  the  sea  are  to  be  found  all  the  delicacies 
that  may  be  had  in  tropical  countries. 

4.  The   ancient  erections  of  Egypt  naturally  excited  feelings 
of  veneration. 

5.  In  Havana  there  are  modern  improvements  in  the  mode 
of  living. 

6.  Some  village  patriot   that  with  dauntless   breast  the   little 
tyrant  of  his  fields  withstood. 

7.  She  was  turned  out  on  the  street  without  any  resources. 

8.  They  sank  like  metal  in  the  mighty  waters. 


Il8  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

9.  Will  you  die  of  want  in  the  land  which  your  labor  has  made 
productive  ? 

10.  God  is  seen  in  the  growth  of  vegetation,  in  the  movements 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  in  the  rage  of  the  elements. 

11.  A  very  small  proportion  of  those  who  have  attempted  to 
solve  this  problem,  have  succeeded. 

12.  The  garden  was  filled  with  an  immense  number  of  flowers. 

13.  When  he  began  to  fight,  he  meant  to  win  or  die  (sword 
.  .  .  scabbard). 

14.  Will  you  behold  your  country  in  flames,  and  the  fruit  of 
the  people's  toil  (harvests)  destroyed? 

15.  Peace  had  now  been  enjoyed  by  the  nation  for  a  consider- 
able time,  during  which  the  public  revenue  had  increased  by  a 
large  sum. 

16.  Will  you  look  on  while  the  inhabitants  (Cossacks)  of  the 
north  crush  (tread  .  .  .  foot)  your  dearest  friends  (fathers, 
mothers,  etc.)  ? 

17.  Do  men  gather  grateful  and  nutritious  fruit  from  trees  that 
bear  only  prickly  armor  (figs  .   .   .  thistles)  ? 

18.  I  sat  by  her  when  she  was  a  babe  (cradle),  I  followed  her 
to  the  grave. 

19.  The  Jewish  nation,  relying  on  the  teaching  of  its  prophets, 
looked  forward  to  a  time  when  its  descendants  should  be  as 
numerous  as  the  stars,  when  the  corn  of  the  earth  should  be 
abundant,  when  each  man  should  rest  beneath  the  shade  of  his 
own  trees,  and  when  the  instruments  of  war  should  be  converted 
to  the  uses  of  peace. 

20.  The  wood  I  walk  in  on  this  mild  May  day,  with  the  young 
foliage  of  the  trees  between  me  and  the  blue  sky,  the  various 
flowers  and  herbs  at  my  feet  —  what  grove  of  tropical  trees,  plants, 
or  flowers,  could  ever  thrill  me  like  this  home  scene? 

21.  Such  a  man  might  fall  a  victim  to  power  ;  but  trutli,  and 
reason,  and  liberty,  would  fall  with  him. 

22.  Then  did  ^neas  pass  on  his  way,  and  the  goddess  led  him, 
and  the  flames  gave  place  to  him,  and  the  javelins  harmed  him  not. 


STRENGTH.  II9 

23.  They  brought  beds  and  basins  and  earthen  vessels  and 
wheat  and  barley  and  flour  and  parched  corn  and  beans  and  lentil 
and  parched  pulse  and  honey  and  butter  and  sheep  and  cheese 
of  kine. 

24.  I  cannot  but  imagine  that  the  virtuous  heroes,  the  virtuous 
legislators,  and  the  virtuous  patriots  of  every  age  and  of  every 
country,  are  bending  from  their  elevated  seats  to  witness  this  contest. 

25.  True  liberty  can  exist  only  when  justice  is  equally  adminis- 
tered to  the  king  and  the  beggar. 

26.  The  walls  are  scaled,  and  the  gates  stormed,  and  the  con- 
flict follows,  and  blood  flows.  Then  the  magistrates  interfere ; 
Savonarola  and  one  of  his  chief  friends  are  seized  and  conveyed, 
by  order  of  the  magistrates,  to  prison. 

27.  Although  he  was  then  nearly  eighty  years  of  age,  he  sent 
to  England  for  books,  and  began  the  task  of  learning  Greek. 

28.  Thou  hast  done  well,  thou  who  art  a  good  and  faithful  servant. 

29.  Let  us  have  Liberty  first,  and  then  let  us  have  Union  after- 
wards. 

30.  Newton  was  very  far  from  being  correct  (was  out)  in  his 
calculations. 

31.  He  reached  a  conclusion  without  giving  the  matter  due 
consideration  (jumped  to). 

32.  People  who  make  very  loud  threats  seldom  have  the  heart 
to  carry  them  out.      (Barking  dogs,  etc.) 

^^.  When  our  difficulties  are  overcome,  we  frequently  forget  to 
be  grateful  to  those  who  aided  us  in  the  hour  of  need.  (The 
river  past,  and  God  forgotten.) 

34.  The  poet  is  born,  he  cannot  be  made  by  any  course  of 
training. 

35.  His  ambition  was  to  gain  honor  and  to  gain  wealth  and  to 
gain  fame. 

36.  Do  not  complain  of  things  that  are  done  and  cannot  be 
helped.      (Spilt  milk.) 

37.  It  is  folly  to  let  the  cause  of  an  evil  continue  and  still  labor 
to  prevent  the  results.     (Pump  with  the  leak  open.) 


I20  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XXV. 

STRENGTH  FROM  VARIETY. 

Strength  is  promoted  by  Variety.  Sameness  of  any  kind  in 
writing  is  tiresome  ;  variety  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  pleasure. 
Light  and  shade,  energy  and  ease,  strength  and  weakness,  beauty 
and  deformity,  have  a  greater  effect  when  placed  side  by  side. 

Kinds  of  Variety.  — The  variety  here  spoken  of  may  be  of 
several  kinds. 

1.  Instead  of  repeating  a  word,  it  is  generally  better  to  use  a 
synonym;  as,  "The  flesh  was  weary,  the  spirit /(?/;//,  and  I  was 
getti7ig  out  of  humor  with  the  bustling  crowd." 

2.  Variety  of  expression,  as  illustrated  in  subsequent  Lessons, 
should  be  constantly  turned  to  use,  so  that  no  stereotyped  form 
may  be  allowed  to  appear. 

3.  Particular  and  general  terms  should  be  introduced,  each 
when  most  effective. 

4.  Sentences  of  all  kinds  —  long,  short,  simple,  compound,  and 
complex,  the  period,  loose  sentence,  and  compromise  —  should 
all  be  employed,  not  with  studied  stiffness  and  measured  precision, 
but  in  such  alternation  that  they  may  relieve  one  another,  and 
effectually  bar  all  monotony. 

5.  The  order  should  be  varied  —  sometimes  the  direct,  some- 
times the  indirect. 

6.  At  times  thoughts  should  be  stated  at  length,  and  even  re- 
peated ;  at  others,  they  must  be  uttered  with  the  baldest  brevity. 

7.  Sometimes  the  simplest  words  appeal  most  strongly  to  our 
feelings ;  at  other  times  the  longest  and  heaviest  strike  the  hardest 
blows. 

8.  Figures  of  Speech  should  be  introduced  to  enforce,  beautify, 
and  enliven  the  plain  language,  as  the  nature  of  the  subject  and 
its  treatment  will  permit. 

9.  Discourse  may  sometimes  be  rendered  more  animated  by 


STRENGTH.  121 

turning  some  of  the  leading  declarative  sentences  into  the  inter- 
rogative form.  This  arrangement  is  usually  known  as  a  figure  of 
speech,  under  the  name  of  Interrogation.  Thus,  the  expression 
"Who  is  equal  to  him?"  is  more  lively  than  "  He  has  no  equal." 
Besides,  if  such  interrogations  are  interspersed  among  declara- 
tions, they  break  the  monotony  as  well  as  flatter  the  reader  by 
asking  him  to  take  part  in  the  discussion,  and  by  showing  respect 
for  his  opinions. 

10.  Again,  when  strong  feeling  is-  being  expressed,  the  writer 
may,  instead  of  making  a  full  length  statement,  break  out  into  an 
Exclamation.  Thus,  it  would  both  indicate  and  arouse  greater 
intensity  of  feeling  to  burst  out  with  the  exclamation,  "  Beauti- 
ful ! '*  or,  "How  beautiful!"  than  to  say,  "This  is  beautiful." 
This,  also,  is  generally  classed  as  a  figure  of  speech. 

11.  In  narration  or  description,  one  may  conceive  so  lively  a 
view  of  his  subject  as  to  fancy  that  the  distant  or  the  past  is 
actually  present,  and  may  speak  of  it  in  the  present  tense,  as  if 
at  the  moment  under  his  view.  This  manner  of  speaking  is 
commonly  called    Vision. 


EXERCISE  XXXVIII. 

Strength  from  Variety. 

Direction.  —  Refer  to  the  sections  of  the  preceding  Lesson,  and  make 
these  expressions  stronger  by  using  some  of  the  means  there  pointed  out. 

1.  There  are  here  many  goodly  creatures  (lo). 

2.  He  that  hath  planted  the  ear,  must  surely  be  able  to 
hear  (9). 

3.  All  this  bustle  and  terror  is  not  because  anything  substantial 
is  expected  (9). 

4.  He  must  exert  his  talents  at  home,  for  there  is  surely  no 
other  place  where  he  can  obtain  a  profitable  credit  for  his  exer- 
tion (9). 

5.  The  scenes  of  my  childhood  are  dear  to  my  heart  (10). 


122  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

6.  The  fears  which  such  a  situation  must  inspire  are  bound- 
less (lo). 

7.  You  cannot  put  your  hand  into  the  fire  and  not  be 
burned  (9). 

8.  Our  hearts  were  beating  when  we  saw  the  army  of  the  League 
drawn  out  in  long  array  (10). 

9.  He  commanded  them  to  fix  bayonets  and  charge  (10). 

10.  We  laid  him  down  slowly  and  sadly  (5). 

11.  The  world  of  God  around  us  is  indeed  glorious;  but  the 
world  of  God  within  us  is  still  more  glorious  (5). 

12.  They  sailed  by  the  sandy  shores  of  Araya,  they  sailed  past 
the  lofty  cocoanut  trees  that  stand  over  Cumana,  they  sailed  along 
that  beautiful  coast,  they  sailed  through  the  difficult  waters  of  the 
gloomy  Golofo  Trieste,  they  sailed  past  the  province  of  Venezuela, 
and  they  sailed  on  to  Darien  (i). 

13.  And,  once  again,  man  asks  for  light.  It  is  as  he  sits  yon- 
der beside  his  dead  in  the  chamber  (2)  that  has  grown  dark.  His 
heart  went  out  (5)  to  her  in  the  jocund  days  (2)  of  youth,  and 
twined  (5)  its  tendrils  round  her.  Lovely  and  beautiful  (5)  were 
they  as  they  grew  in  wisdom,  confidence,  and  love.  But  (5)  over 
her  the  ruthless  blast  has  swept,  she  gave  up  the  ghost  (5)  in  the 
very  pride  of  motherhood  :  she  died  while  yet  a  young  woman  (8. 
her  sun  .  .  .).  And  soon  he  "must  bury  his  dead  out  of  his 
sight."  Mysterious  and  dark  are  the  mission  and  meaning  of 
Death  (9.  What  is  .  .  . ,  O  Death?).  Perhaps  it  ends  all,  or 
perhaps  we  pass  through  it  back  again,  as  rain-drops,  into  the  vast 
immensity  of  the  all-individuality  and  are  lost  forever ;  or  perhaps 
we  shall  live  again  (9.  Dost  thou,  indeed,  ...?).  It  is  not  sen- 
timentalism  that  thus  speaks,  for  (4)  the  strongest  minds  have 
heaved  the  lead  in  these  mysterious  depths,  and  (4)  the  mightiest 
hearts  have  quaked  with  strange  terror  in  presence  of  these 
problems.  He  who  is  Christianity  himself  replies.  In  His  own 
person  He  grappled  with,  wrested  the  power  (3)  from  the  sover- 
eign (3)  of  terrors,  and  over  his  prostrate  form  marched  forth 
from  Death's  dominion  (3)  with  the  note  of  triumph  on  His  lip 


STRENGTH.  1 23 

and  said  (2.  Use  direct  form  here)  that  He  was  "the  resurrection 
and  the  Hfe." 

14.  It  is  now  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  since  I  saw  the  Queen 
of  France,  then  the  Dauphiness,  at  Versailles  ;  and  surely  a  more 
(5)  delightful  vision  never  lighted  on  this  orb,  which  she  hardly 
seemed  to  touch.  I  saw  her  just  above  the  horizon,  decorating 
and  cheering  the  elevated  sphere  she  had  just  begun  to  move  in  — 
glittering  like  the  morning  star,  full  of  life,  and  splendor,  and  joy. 
There  has  since  that  (10.  Oh,  what  a  .  .  .)  been  a  great  revolu- 
tion, and  I  would  have  (10)  a  hard  heart  if  I  could  contemplate 
without  emotion  that  elevation  and  that  fall.  When  she  added 
titles  of  veneration  to  those  of  enthusiastic,  distant  love,  I  little 
dreamt  (10.  Give  "little"  the  most  emphatic  position,  and 
"  dreamt "  the  next)  that  she  would  ever  be  obliged  to  carry  poi- 
son (8.  .  .  .  antidote  .  .  .  disgrace  .  .  .)  with  which  to  save  her- 
self from  the  vengeance  of  her  people  ;  (Repeat  in  emphatic  posi- 
tion "little  "...  "dream"  )  that  I  should  have  lived  to  see  such 
disasters  fallen  upon  her  in  a  nation  of  gallant  men  (Repeat  "  in  a 
nation"  and  expand  "  gallant  "  ).  I  thought  her  courtly  attend- 
ants (8.  .  .  .  swords  .  .  .  scabbards  .  .  . )  would  instantly  have 
avenged  the  slightest  (8.  .  .  .  look  .  .  .)  attempt  to  offer  her 
insult.  But  I  was  very  far  astray  (6),  for  the  days  of  noble  (8. 
chivalry)  and  self-sacrificing  deeds  are  past  (4),  and  are  succeeded 
by  the  reign  of  sophisters,  economists,  and  calculators,  and  the  glory 
of  Europe  is  forever  (Make  "forever"  emphatic)  extinguished. 

15.  Frederick  immediately  sent  relief;  and  in  an  instant  all 
Saxony  was  overflowed  (11)  with  armed  men. 

16.  The  brain-women  (6)  never  interest  us  like  the  heart- 
women  (6)  ;  white  roses  please  less  than  red  (8).  (Justify  or 
suggest  improvements  in  this  and  the  next  two.) 

17.  When  you  can  get  the  bitter  out  of  the  partridge's  thigh, 
you  can  make  an  enlightened  commonwealth  of  Indians  (6). 
A  provisional  race  (6),  Sir,  —  nothing  more. 

18.  On  the  rich  and  the  eloquent,  on  nobles  and  priests,  they 
looked  down  with  contempt  (4). 


124  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  XXXIX. 

General  Exercise  on  Strength. 

Direction.  —  Explain  wherein  these  sentences  are  deficient  in  strength, 
then  make  any  improvements  you  can. 

Part  I. 

1.  He  adv^anced  up  to  the  door. 

2.  As  I  previously  remarked  before  now,  I  say  again. 

3.  He  reduced  the  pound  down  to  shilUngs  and  pence. 

4.  He  appears  to  enjoy  the  universal  esteem  of  all  men. 

5.  I  went  away,  full  of  a  great  many  serious  reflections. 

6.  The  sentence  is  full  of  the  greatest  number  of  mistakes. 

7.  The  whole  of  it  is  filled  with  gems  of  thought. 

8.  He  was  a  man  of  fine  reputation  and  enjoyed  a  high  degree 
of  popularity. 

9.  When  such  a  man  is  found,  his  name  is  on  every  one's  Hps, 
his  deeds  are  lauded  by  all. 

10.  The  man  of  virtue  and  of  honor  will  be  trusted   and   es- 
teemed and  respected  and  relied  upon. 

11.  We  should  not  avenge  ourselves  on  our  enemies,  nor  take 
revenge  on  our  foes. 

12.  Man  is  immortal;  he  will  live  forever. 

13.  The  lawyer  questioned  the  prisoner  minutely,  and  examined 
him  at  length. 

14.  We  often  conjure  up  grounds  of  apprehension,  and  give 
ourselves  unnecessary  uneasiness. 

15.  We  rested  under  the  umbrageous  shadow  of  a  shady  oak, 
and  then  again  resumed  our  journey  anew. 

16.  That   esculent  succulent  on  which  so  many  poor  people 
depend  for  their  daily  sustenance. 

1 7.  Cook  Teets  was  last  week  sentenced  to  be  hanged  for  poi- 
soning Rosannah  his  wife  about  this  time  last  year. 

18.  They  periodically   and    regularly    exposed   the    mould   to 
the  air. 


STRENGTH.  1 25 

19.  The  picture  was  universally  admired  by  everybody. 

20.  The  President  holds  the  executive  power  of  the  land,  but 
the  legislative  power  is  vested  in  Congress. 

21.  I  heard  him  often  reiterate  repeatedly,  that  he  would  never 
again,  if  a  safe  and  secure  path  was  open  to  him,  prefer  the  per- 
ilous road  of  danger,  however  alluring  and  attractive  the  latter 
might  be. 

22.  Alfred  the  Great,  of  England,  was  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able and  distinguished  men  that  we  read  of  in  history.  Though 
his  efforts  were  unable  and  insufficient  to  entirely  banish  the  dark- 
ness of  the  age  he  lived  in,  yet  he  greatly  improved  the  condition 
of  his  countrymen,  and  was  the  means  of  doing  much  good  to 
them. 

23.  While  these  whispers  were  passing,  the  sleeper's  features 
did  not  betray  the  least  token  of  interest,  his  heart  did  not  throb, 
nor  his  breath  become  agitated. 

24.  He  thought  of  May  Dacre,  he  thought  of  everything  that 
was  pure,  and  holy,  and  beautiful,  and  luminous,  and  calm. 

25.  I  know  not  why  you  came,  without  it  was  to  learn  how  we 
all  are,  as  a  sociable  neighbor  ought  to. 

Part  II. 

26.  The  people  gave  him  their  support,  and  he  was  again 
re-elected  to  the  same  position  from  whence  he  had  been 
rejected. 

27.  On  their  journey  to  the  Pacific  coast,  they  passed  through 
Detroit,  Chicago,  and  Victoria ;  returning  home  again  the  next 
year  by  the  same  road,  they  passed  through  the  same  cities  again. 

28.  It  is  only  in  novels,  and  on  tomb-stones,  that  we  meet  with 
people  who  are  indulgent  to  the  faults  of  others,  and  do  not  look 
with  mercy  on  their  own. 

29.  We  have  passed  the  clause  which  gives  unlimited  authority 
over  the  national  wealth,  and  here  is  one  by  which  unbounded 
control  is  given  over  the  strength  of  the  nation. 


126  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

30.  Every  body  of  matter,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
molecule,  whether  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous,  may  be  forced  into  a 
smaller  volume.     (Compare,  —  Matter  is  compressible.) 

3 1 .  Those  who  are  habitually  silent  by  disposition  and  morose, 
are  less  liable  and  open  to  the  fault  of  exaggeration  than  those  who 
are  habitually  fond  of  talking  and  of  a  pleasant  disposition. 

32.  Consider  the  flowers  how  they  gradually  .increase  in  their 
size  ;  they  do  no  manner  of  work,  and  yet  I  declare  to  you  that  no 
king  whatever,  in  his  most  splendid  habit,  is  dressed  up  like  them. 

;^;^.  If,  then,  God  in  His  providence  doth  so  adorn  the  vege- 
table productions,  which  continue  but  a  little  time  on  the  land,  and 
are  afterwards  put  into  the  fire,  how  much  more  will  He  provide 
clothing  for  you  ! 

34.  Fashionable  society  gets  at  these  rich  natures  very  often  in 
a  way  one  would  hardly  at  first  think  of. 

35.  The  lake  is  very  grand  and  inspiring  when  rough,  but  very 
beautiful  when  calm.     (Make  exclamatory.) 

36.  Charity  beareth  all  things,  and  believeth  all  things,  and  en- 
dureth  all  things. 

37.  In  the  Attic  commonwealth,  it  was  the  privilege  and  birth- 
right of  every  citizen  and  poet,  to  rail  aloud  and  in  public. 

38.  I  have  got  a  cold  together  with  a  fever. 

39.  On  the  supposition  that  one  person  salutes  another  person, 
does  the  first  person  lie  under  an  obligation  to  exclaim  in  a  vehe- 
ment and  plaintive  voice  ? 

40.  He  had  been  false  to  his  God,  to  his  conscience,  to  his 
mother. 

41.  There  is  no  government  without  a  magistrate;  no  enjoy- 
ment of  property  without  government ;  no  obedience  where  every 
one  acts  as  he  pleases  ;  and  no  magistrate  without  obedience. 

42.  The  elegancies  and  suavities  of  life  die  out  one  by  one  as 
we  sink  through  the  social  scale. 

43.  This  animal  is  said  fo  have  the  power  of  living  in  the  air  or 
in  7vater.  (In  this  and  the  two  following  sentences,  substitute 
one  word  for  the  words  in  italics.) 


UNITY.  127 

44.  This  writer  everywhere  exhibits  a  vain  show  of  learning 
which  lie  attempts  to  display  in  stiff  and  pompous  phi  aseology. 

45.  When  we  became  better  acquainted  with  him  we  found 
him  to  be  a  man  fond  of  fine  dress,  and  extravagantly  nice  about 
his  personal  appearance. 

46.  A  chairman  and  a  deputy-chairman  and  subscriptions  and 
an  annual  sermon  would  give  great  dignity  to  their  proceedings. 

47.  "I  will  die  for  you,  I  will  relieve  you,"  said  the  cloud. 

48.  He  determined  to  seek  out  its  author  in  the  inmost  recesses 
of  the  consecrated  bed-chamber,  of  the  palace,  of  the  capital  city 
—  and  wherever  found  to  lodge  a  dagger  in  his  heart. 

49.  The  soldier,  in  order  to  attend  to  his  duties,  forsook 
friends,  wealth,  pleasure. 


LESSON    XXVI. 

3.   UNITY. 

Every  sentence  should  possess  Unity,  that  is,  every  part  of  it 
should  be  subservient  to  one  principal  affirmation. 

Subsidiary  Clauses  and  Details.  —  This  Unity  does  not  pre- 
clude the  enumeration  in  a  sentence  of  various  details,  nor  the 
introduction  of  several  dependent  clauses ;  but  these  details  must 
be  closely  related,  and  the  thoughts  of  these  dependent  clauses 
must  be  subordinate  to  one  governing  idea,  or  must  be  a  conse- 
quence of  it,  or  an  inference  from  it,  so  that  all  the  parts  of  the 
sentence  may  combine  to  form  a  unit,  not  a  collection  of  units. 

How  attained.  —  In  seeking  to  attain  Unity,  care  must  be 
given  to  these  matters  :  Change  of  Subject,  Things  Unconnected, 
Parentheses,  Supplementary  Clauses. 

I.    Change  of  Subject. 

In  the  course  of  the  same  sentence,  the  subject  should  be 
changed  as  little  as  possible. 


128  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Exa?nple.  — "  Although  he  fulfilled  his  duties  honorably,  pro- 
motion came  slowly ;  and  it  was  not  until  he  was  forty-three  that 
the  rank  of  captain  was  attained."  Here  are  four  subjects  "he," 
"promotion,"  "  it,"  "rank,"  with  as  many  different  verbs.  The 
principal  subject  is  "  he,"  and  the  sentence  should  be  written, 
"  Although  he  fulfilled  his  duties  honorably,  he  was  slowly  pro- 
moted ;  and,  before  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  captain,  he  was 
fully  forty-three." 

2.    Things  Unconnected. 

Things  that  have  so  little  connection  in  sense  that  they  may  just 
as  well  be  expressed  in  separate  sentences,  should  not  be  crowcJed 
into  one  sentence.  There  should  be  but  one  leading  thought  in  a 
sentence. 

Example.  —  "  What  we  understand  by  gentleman-like  feelings 
he  knew  nothing  about ;  I  will  give  you  a  curious  instance."  Here 
it  would  be  better  to  stop  at  "  about  "  and  begin  a  new  sentence ; 
thus,  "  Of  this  I  will  give  you  a  curious  instance." 

3.    Parentheses. 

A  parenthesis  may  occasionally  be  introduced  into  a  sentence 
with  good  effect ;  as,  "  We  are  all  (and  who  would  not  be  ?) 
offended  at  the  treatment  we  have  received."  This  is  more 
vigorous  than  "  We  are  all  offended  at  the  treatment  we  have 
received.  Who,  indeed,  would  not  be  offended?"  As,  however, 
parentheses,  by  calling  off  attention  from  the  main  subject,  tend 
to  make  sentences  heavy  and  obscure,  the  use  of  them  is  fraught 
with  danger,  and  should  be  avoided  by  young  writers. 

Exatnple.  —  "  The  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria  in  Austria  (which 
were  discovered  in  1797,  by  a  peasant,  who,  catching  some  water 
from  a  spring,  found  the  tub  so  heavy  that  he  could  not  move  it, 
and  the  bottom  covered  with  a  shining  substance,  which  turned 
out  to  be  mercury),  yield  every  year  over  three  hundred  thousand 
pounds  of  that  valuable  metal."  In  this,  the  parenthesis  should 
be  made  a  separate  sentence. 


UNITY.  129 

4.    Supplementary  Clauses. 

A  clause  should  not  be  added  after  the  sentence  has  been  appar- 
ently brought  to  a  close. 

Example.  —  "As  he  moralized  on  these  words  they  seemed  to 
soothe  the  sadness  of  his  heart ;  which  was  sometimes  subject  to 
palpitation." 

This  sentence  should  end  at  "  heart,"  and  the  remainder  ought 
either  to  be  formed  into  a  separate  sentence,  or  to  be  neatly 
embodied  in  the  main  statement. 

Exceptions.  —  The  rules  here  laid  down  for  Unity  must  be 
construed  with  considerable  liberality. 

1.  It  must  not  be  regarded  as  a  violation  of  them  to  add  after 
a  semi-colon  a  clause  of  consequence,  explanation,  iteration, 
exemplification,  or  qualification  ;  as,  "  Surely  this  ought  not  to 
be  asserted,  unless  it  can  be  proved ;  we  should  speak  with  cau- 
tious reverence  upon  such  a  subject.''  "  .Agriculture  is  the  founda- 
tion of  manufactures  ;  the  productions  of  nature  are  the  materials 
of  art." 

2.  In  Description  and  Narration  it  is  often  desirable  to  bring 
together  several  distinct  facts  in  the  same  sentence,  as  in  the 
following  :  "  By  night,  sweet  odors,  varying  with  every  hour  of  the 
watch,  were  wafted  from  the  shore  to  the  vessel  lying  near  ;  |  and 
the  forest  trees,  brought  together  by  the  serpent  tracery  of  myriads 
of  strange  parasitical  plants,  might  well  seem  to  the  fancy  like 
some  great  design  of  building,  |  over  which  the  lofty  palms  ap- 
peared to  present  a  new  order  of  architecture."  Here,  there  are 
three  distinct  facts  that  might  have  been  written  in  as  many  sepa- 
rate sentences,  but  as  they  are  closely  connected  in  sense,  they 
have  a  better  effect  in  one  sentence  than  they  would  have  in  three 
curt  and  abrupt  ones. 


130  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE   XL. 

■  Direction.  —  Examine  these  sentences,  determine  which  of  the  rules  of 
Unity  is  violated,  and  then  rewrite  the  sentences  with  the  necessary  corrections 

1.  By  adopting  this  system  the  estimator  will  know  that  each 
item  is  complete,  and  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  err  in  the 
final  result. 

2.  Mr.  Lewis  and  I  dined  with  a  friend  of  his,  and  unexpectedly 
there  dined  with  us  an  Irish  Knight,  who  follows  the  law  here,  but 
at  a  great  distance  :  he  was  so  pert,  I  was  forced  to  take  him  down 
more  than  once. 

3.  Unlike  the  others,  she  is  very  fond  of  water,  and  if  left  to 
her  own  inclinations,  would  swim  all  day,  having  once  saved  the 
life  of  a  child  in  Missouri,  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  River ; 
she  can  never  go  near  the  water  where  people  are  bathing  but  that 
she  insists  upon  fetching  them  out. 

4.  Fritz  is  a  white  and  mouse-colored  hound,  very  savage  from 
the  day  he  was  born,  and  shows  a  disposition  like  his  mother,  to  be 
very  treacherous,  he  is  inclined  to  be  cross  and  unruly  at  times, 
and  nothing  but  the  most  severe  discipline,  coupled  with  a  certain 
amount  of  kindness,  ever  kept  him  within  bounds. 

5.  The  opposition  induced  the  governor  (who  exercises  the 
power  of  appointing  judges  during  the  recess  of  the  legislature) 
not  to  make  any  appointment. 

6.  If  the  object  of  the  people  assembled  at  Bethlehem  was  of  a 
public  nature  (which  it  certainly  was  if  they  assembled  with  intent 
to  prevent  the  execution  of  both  the  above-mentioned  acts  of 
Congress,  or  either  of  them),  it  must  be  proved  that  the  prisoner 
incited  the  insurrection. 

7.  His  Excellency  read  his  letter  (wherein  he  says,  that  not- 
withstanding his  objections  to  the  Constitution,  he  would  adopt  it 
rather  than  lose  the  union),  and  then  proceeded  to  prove  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  opinion. 

8.  The  first  order  of  business  shall  I)e  receiving  the  annual 
report  of  the  trustees  (showing  the  state  of  the  school  for  the  year, 


UNITY.  131 

the  proceedings  of  the  trustees,  and  giving  a  detailed  account  of 
the  receipt  and  expenditure  of  all  school  moneys)  and  disposing 
of  the  same. 

9.  When  you  send  up  butter  for  sauce,  be  so  thrifty  as  to  let  i( 
be  half  water  ;  which  is  also  much  wholesomer. 

10.  I  am  convinced  that  the  name  "scold"  is  as  offensive  to 
female  ears,  as  the  effects  of  that  incurable  distemper  are  to  the 
ears  of  men  ;  which,  to  be  sure,  is  inexpressible. 

11.  I  have  frequently  observed  that  at  the  bar  and  the  pulpit, 
those  who  have  the  least  learning  or  sense  generally  meet  with  the 
largest  share  of  promotions  and  profits  ;  of  which  many  instances 
might  be  produced. 

12.  A  Church-of-England  man  will  never  be  swayed  by  passion 
or  interest  to  advance  an  opinion  merely  because  it  is  that  of  the 
party  he  approves  ;  which,  on  single  principle,  he  looks  upon  as 
the  root  of  all  our  civil  animosities. 

13.  And  no  wonder  this  is  so,  when  in  order  to  find  out  the 
character  of  a  person,  instead  of  inquiring  whether  he  be  a  man  of 
virtue,  honor,  piety,  wit,  good  sense,  or  learning,  the  modern  ques- 
tion is  only  whether  he  be  a  Whig  or  a  Tory ;  under  which  terms 
all  good  and  ill  quaUties  are  included. 

14.  After  the  sabbath  evening  service,  this  noble  man  stood 
upon  a  chair  on  a  corner  of  the  street  and  preached  in  the  open 
air  to  a  large  audience  who  crowded  the  street,  and  no  policeman 
interfered. 

15.  Six  days  out  of  the  seven  spent  on  the  ocean  were  among 
the  most  pleasant  days  of  my  life,  and  now  my  difficulty  is  in  part- 
ing with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Frost,  and  the  many  kind  friends  whom  I 
have  met. 

16.  If  some  men,  according  to  the  fashionable  metaphor,  are 
square,  while  others  are  round,  the  Right  Honorable  Robert  Lowe 
must  be  described  as  multangular,  with  whom  it  is  not  very  easy  to 
live  comfortably  and  at  peace. 

I  7.  Lord  Bacon's  maxims  are  full  of  philosophy  ;  but  he  was  a 
very  mean  man. 


132  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

18.  Mr.  Scott,  of  this  town,  met  with  a  painful  accident  last 
week ;  he  is  now  quite  an  old  man. 

19.  The  king  fell  from  his  horse  and  died  two  hours  after  the 
fall,  which  was  occasioned  by  the  horse's  stumbling  on  a  mole-hill, 
while  he  was  on  his  return  from  reviewing  his  troops. 

20.  We  intend  to  have  observations  of  rainfall  and  temperature 
taken  at  the  stations,  and  in  this  way  data  will  accumulate  to  show 
what  varieties  from  normal  seasons  take  place. 

21.  I  was  at  the  Court  of  Requests  to  get  some  lords  to  be  at  a 
committee  to-morrow  about  a  friend's  bill :  and  then  the  Duke  of 
Beaufort  gave  me  a  poem,  finely  bound  in  foho,  printed  in  Stam- 
ford, and  written  by  a  country  squire. 

22.  Mr.  Harley  continues  out  of  order,  yet  his  affairs  force  him 
abroad  ;  he  is  subject  to  a  sore  throat,  and  was  cupped  last  night ; 
I  sent  and  called  two  or  three  times. 

23.  Here  also  would  properly  arise  the  question,  started  by 
Charles  Fox  (but  properly  due  originally  to  the  conversation  of 
some  far  subtler  friend,  such  as  Edmund  Burke),  how  far  the  prac- 
tice of  foot-notes  (a  practice  purely  modern  in  its  form)  is  recon- 
cilable with  the  laws  of  just  composition ;  and  whether  in  virtue, 
though  not  in  form,  such  foot-notes  did  not  exist  for  the  ancients, 
by  an  evasion  we  could  point  out. 

24.  Shortly  after  the  accident  happened  he  went  for  a  tour  on 
the  continent ;  where  he  saw  many  wonderful  sights,  with  which  he 
was  dehghted  ;  and  throughout  his  whole  travels  he  was  treated 
with  every  mark  of  respect ;  and  returned  after  an  absence  of  two 
years. 

25.  Roderick  Dhu  is  too  boastful  and  confident  in  his  own  skill 
and  powers ;  he  shows  this  in  throwing  down  his  targe  in  the  duel 
between  Fitz-James  and  himself;  which  action  cost  him  his  life. 


ELEGANCE.  1 33 

LESSON    XXVII. 

4.    ELEGANCE. 

Elegance  constitutes  the  charm  of  language.  It  is  the  quality 
which  pleases,  as  distinguished  from  that  which  instructs  (Clear- 
ness), or  that  which  impresses  (Strength) .  As  the  professed  object 
of  poetry  is  to  please,  Elegance  is  its  appropriate  excellence ;  yet, 
since  beauty  always  gives  effectiveness  to  language,  Elegance  holds 
no  unimportant  place  in  prose. 

How  Attained.  • —  In  seeking  to  attain  Elegance,  which  is 
really  the  outcome  of  good  taste,  the  beginner  may  gain  some- 
thing by  giving  attention  to  IMelody,  Harmony,  the  Avoidance 
of  Fine  Writing,  and  Keeping. 

Melody. 

Elegance  requires  Melody  in  language ;  that  is,  it  requires  the 
choice  of  such  words  as  are  agreeable  to  the  ear,  the  taste,  and 
the  imagination. 

Melody  may  be  promoted  by  the  use  of :  — 

I.  Euphonious  Words. — The  sound  of  some  words  is  much 
more  agreeable  to  the  ear  than  that  of  others.  The  followmg  are 
harsh  :  — 

a.  Derivatives  from  long  compounds ;  as,  unsucccssfulness, 
wrongheadedness. 

b.  Words  that  contain  a  succession  of  consonants ;  as,  plead- 
ed''st,  pledged'' st,  disrespect. 

c.  Words  that  contain  a  succession  of  unaccented  syllables  ; 
as,  derogate rily,  peremptoriness. 

d.  Words  that  contain  vowels  of  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same 
sound ;  as,  holily. 

e.  A  succession  of  words  having  the  same  or  a  similar  sound  , 
as,  "The/ar/v  departed 'm  the  early/^zr/of  the  evening. 


134  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  noted  that :  — 

a.  A  preponderance  of  vowels  and  Hquids  gives  ease  and  soft- 
ness to  the  sound  ;  as,  elimination,  moderation. 

b.  An  alternation  of  vowels  and  consonants  heightens  the 
melody ;  as,  celerity,  a  lonely  day. 

c.  A  due  alternation  of  long  and  short,  of  accented  and  unac- 
cented syllables,  is  an  essential  condition  of  melody;  as,  "The 
pomp  and  circumstance  of  glorious  war." 

d.  A  difficult  and  harsh  combination  of  letters  may  produce 
an  agreeable  variety,  if  made  to  follow  a  succession  of  smooth 
and  liquid  sounds. 

2.  Euphonious  Arrangement. — Words  may  be  well-chosen, 
and  may  be  euphonious  in  themselves,  yet  if  they  are  not  skil- 
fully arranged,  the  musical  flow,  or  rhythm,  of  the  sentence  will  be 
broken. 

a.  Euphonious  words  sometimes  produce  an  unpleasing  effect 
when  placed  in  an  order  that  causes  unpleasant  consonantal  com- 
binations, or  a  repetition  of  the  same  sounds  in  close  succession  ; 
as,  "  up  by  "  ;  "I  can  candidly  tell  you  "  ;  "  He  will  wilfully  wan- 
der from  the  way." 

These  combinations  may  be  avoided  by  using  synonyms;  as, 
"  up  near  "  ;  "  I  can  frankly  tell  you  "  ;  "  He  will  purposely  wander 
from  the  path." 

fi.  A  succession  of  words  of  the  same  number  of  syllables  is 
seldom  conducive  to  harmony  ;  as,  "  No  kind  of  joy  can  long 
please  us  "  is  improved  by  writing,  "  No  species  of  joy  can  long 
delight  us." 

e.  The  melody  of  a  sentence  may  be  heightened  by  arranging 
the  words  so  that  the  accents  fall  with  some  sort  of  regularity  and 
on  important  words.  In  the  following  beautiful  sentence  from 
George  Eliot,  the  rhythm  of  the  latter  part  is  almost  poetic : 
"  The  boat  re-appeared,  but  brother  and  sister  had  gone  down 
in  an  embrace  never  to  be  parted  ;  living  through  again,  in  one 
supreme  moment,  the  days  when  they  had  clasped  their  little 
hands  in  love,  and  roamed  the  daisied  fields  together." 


ELEGANCE.  135 

Euphonious  Endings.  —  It  it  important  to  have  a  pleasing 
cadence  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  and,  when  possible,  so  to 
arrange  the  words  and.  clauses  that  the  sound  may  swell  to  the 
close.  The  following  beautiful  sentence  from  Sterne  is  an  admir- 
able example  of  the  pleasing  effect  produced  in  this  way  :  "  The 
accusing  spirit  which  flew  up  to  Heaven's  chancery  with  the  oath, 
blushed  as  he  gave  it  in  ;  and  the  recording  angel  dropped  a  tear 
upon  it  and  blotted  it  out  forever." 

Good  endings  may  be  formed  by  concluding  with  :  — 

a.  A  long  syllable,  especially  if  that  syllable  ends  with  a  con- 
tinuing consonant ;  as,  appear,  supreme. 

b.  With  one  or  more  unaccented  syllables  ;  as,  country,  free- 
dom, liberty. 

Very  long  words,  or  words  with  the  accent  far  from  the  end,  do 
not  make  a  pleasing  close  ;   as,  peremptorily,  irresistibly. 

Harmony. 

Lastly,  there  is  a  kind  of  Harmony  that  arises  from  having  the 
sound  of  the  words  and  of  the  sentence  an  echo  of  the  sense.  So 
far  we  have  spoken  of  the  use  of  euphonious  words  only,  but  words 
of  every  variety  of  sound  have  their  place,  and  Harmony  is  pro- 
moted by  the  selection  of  such  as  are  adapted  to  the  sense. 
Words  of  harsh  and  unpleasant  sound  may  be  employed  with 
advantage  to  express  something  disagreeable  ;  words  of  slow  and 
measured  sound  are  adapted  to  grave  and  serious  thoughts  ;  and 
those  of  soft  and  flowing  sounds,  to  gentle  and  benignant  feelings. 
The  expression  of  motion,  too,  may  be  made  more  effective  by 
the  use  of  suitable  words  and  combinations :  rapid  and  easy 
motion,  by  short,  easily-pronounced  syllables,  or  by  those  of  soft 
and  flowing  smoothness  ;  slow  and  laborious  movement,  by  a  series 
of  long  syllables,  of  accented  words,  or  of  words  that  have  so  many 
difficult  consonants  that  they  cannot  be  rapidly  pronounced. 


136  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  XLI. 

Melody  and  Harmony. 
Direction.  —  Improve  the  Melody  and  Harmony  of  these  sentences. 

1 .  They  were  all  the  children  of  whim,  and  satire,  and  wit. 

2.  They  had  already  reached  the  road  that  runs  round  to  Sleepy 
Hollow. 

3.  This  difficulty  was  at  last  got  rid  of. 

4.  The  man  who  lived  there  last  year  has  made  up  his  mind  to 
move  to  the  city. 

5.  He  was  much  pleased  with  the  way  the  boys  and  girls  said 
their  tasks. 

6.  He  was  just  as  just  as  his  neighbors. 

7.  The  leaves  of  the  trees  fall  in  the  fall. 

8.  He  described  it  in  an  uninteresting  manner. 

9.  Sketch  Scott's  early  education  in  Edinburgh. 

10.  Boys  are  apt,  too,  to  attribute  ridicule  to  wrong  motives. 

11.  His  employer  peremptorily  dismissed  him. 

12.  All  men  do  not  seem  to  have  the  same  mind  as  this  man. 

13.  The  passing  bell  tolled  the  knell  when  the  hero  fell. 

14.  The  standard  to  which  all  form  must  conform  is  usage. 

15.  The  master  is  placed  there  specially  to  influence  —  intellec- 
tually only,  many  think,  but  as  truly  morally. 

16.  He  excelled  in  keen  satire,  and  in  broad  humor,  too. 

17.  The   principal  explained  the  principle  on  which  he  gov- 
erned. 

18.  These    impecunious,  characterless   adventurers,  for  weeks 
and  weeks,  haunted  the  parliamentary  buildings. 

19.  There  will  be  willing  parents  who  will  wish  to  water  the 
seed  scattered  by  me. 

20.  Such  a  thing  was  not  to  be  thought  of,  or  if  it  was,  it  was 
only  to  gratify  my  selfishness. 

21.  The  night  is  past  and  the  morning  is  coming. 

22.  Lazy  people  seldom  gather  riches. 


ELEGANCE.  137 

23.  A  beautiful  island,  famous  in  song  and  story,  lies  upon  the 
other  side  of  the  wide  Atlantic.     (There  lies  .  .  .  song.) 

24.  Of  genius  and  greatness,  it  has  given  to  the  world  more 
than  its  share. 

25.  Let  us  consider  the  ambitious ;  and  both  in  their  progress 
to  greatness,  and  after  the  attaining  of  it. 

-  26.  Her  constant  connection  with  the  family  as  a  fast  friend  of 
the  fastidious  Uttle  Miss  H.,  left  an  indelible  impression  on  her 
mind. 

27.  A  few  rough  logs  laid  side  by  side  served  for  a  bridge  to 
cross  on. 

28.  On  approaching  the  home  of  his  childhood  he  saw  the 
leaves  searing,  for  winter  was  nearing,  and  the  birds  were  about 
disappearing. 

29.  The  separate  casts  of  the  arm  look  immense,  but  in  its 
place  the  limb  looks  light. 

30.  The  raging  waters  rolled  over  his  child,  and  he  was  left  sor- 
rowing.    (Campbell.) 

31.  Up  the  lofty  hill  he  raises  a  large,  round  stone.     (Pope.) 

32.  A  great  many  things  seemingly  relatively  perfectly  plain, 
are  very  difficult  to  unravel. 

33.  Walled  round  with  rocks  as  is  an  inland  island. 

34.  Their  ghosts  circle  thee  in  an  endless  confusion. 

35.  We  live  in  an  enlightened  age. 

36.  The  qualities  necessary  to  save  the  popular  party  in  the 
hour  of  danger,  others  might  possess ;  both  the  power  and  the 
inclination  to  restrain  its  excesses  in  the  hour  of  triumph,  Hamp- 
den alone  had.    (Others  .  .  .  danger;  Hampden  .  .  .  triumph.) 

37.  While  leaning  on  a  post  he  told  me  that,  when  at  the  mili- 
tary post,  he  obtained  a  post  of  great  honor  and  trust,  in  which  it 
was  his  duty  not  only  to  post  the  general's  letters,  but  also  to  post 
his  private  ledger. 


138  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XXVIII. 

ELEGANCE.  —  FINE  WRITING. 

Elegance  as  well  as  Clearness  requires  the  avoidance  of  Fine 
Writing,  that  is,  the  use  of  exquisite  phrases,  long-swelling  words, 
affected  expressions,  and  voluble  circumlocutions,  instead  of  say- 
ing what  one  means  in  a  simple,  natural,  and  straightforward 
manner. 

Sometimes  this  fault  manifests  itself  in  a  desire  to  interlard 
one's  writing  with  poetic  phrases  or  quotations,  as  "  the  festive 
board,",  for  "  table  "  ;  "  the  cup  that  cheers,  but  not  inebriates," 
for  "tea."  Such  quotations  are  allowable  when  they  are  in 
keeping  with  the  rest  of  the  writing,  and  are  in  point. 

This  pretentious  kind  of  language  is  so  much  used  by  public 
speakers,  and  in  newspapers,  magazines,  and  other  periodicals, 
that  it  bids  fair  to  destroy  the  native  simplicity,  force,  and  beauty 
of  our  tongue. 

In  Fine  Writing  people  do  not  live  in  houses,  "  they  reside  in 
residences  "  ;  fires  are  not  put  out,  but  "  conflagrations  are  extin- 
guished "  ;  the  law  does  not  hang  rogues,  but  it  "  launches  into 
eternity  the  victims  of  unbridled  passions";  people  do  not  send 
for  the  doctor,  but  "  call  into  requisition  the  services  of  the  family 
physician  "  ;  they  do  not  die,  but  "  the  spirit  wings  its  flight  into 
eternity";  a  man  does  not  breakfast,  but  he  "discusses  the 
morning  repast  "  ;  he  does  not  go  to  bed,  but  "  retires  to  his 
downy  couch  "  ;  he  does  not  go  to  church,  but  "  attends  divine 
service  "  ;  he  does  not  lose  his  mother  by  death,  but  "  sustains 
a  bereavement  of  his  maternal  relative  "  ;  ladies  are  not  married, 
but  "  led  to  the  hymeneal  altar  "  ;  doctors  do  not  order  a  poultice, 
but  an  "  emollient  cataplasm." 


ELEGANCE.  139 


Keeping. 


Elegance  requires  all  parts  of  discourse  to  be  in  Keeping.  The 
mode  of  treatment  and  .the  style  should  be  suitable  to  the  subject ; 
the  language  and  the  subject  should  support  each  other ;  discords 
of  all  kinds  should  be  avoided;  and  bold  figures  should  be 
sparingly  used. 

1.  The  different  parts  of  a  sentence  should  correspond  to 
one  another ;  as,  "  All  proper  nouns  should  begin  with  a  capital." 
Here  the  first  part  of  the  sentence  is  plural,  and  the  latter  part 
singular.     Say  "  Every  proper  noun." 

2.  The  harshness  caused  by  making  two  verbs  or  prepositions 
govern  the  same  object  should  be  avoided  ;  as,  "  In  the  batde,  he 
furiously  sought  to  close  with,  and  cut  down,  his  rival." 

3.  Low  or  trivial  language  must  not  be  used  in  serious  compo- 
sition ;  as,  "  '  Blessed  are  the  meek,'  that  was  one  of  His  obser- 
vations." 

4.  The  same  word  should  not  be  used  at  short  intervals  in 
different  senses  ;  as,  "  If  the  show  of  anything  is  good  for  any- 
thing, sincerity  is  better." 

5.  The  repetition  of  the  same  word  at  brief  intervals  even  in 
the  same  sense,  is  offensive  to  the  taste  as  well  as  to  the  ear  ;  as, 
"  The  Colonel  ordered  the  subordinate  officers  to  order  their 
troops  to  come  to  order." 

Exceptions.  —  Sometimes,  however,  the  same  word  may  be 
repeated  with  a  fine  effect ;  as,  "  Nothing  is  omitted  ;  tiothmg  is 
crowded."  "  An  unpardonable  fault,  the  fault  of  tediousness, 
pervades  the  whole  of  the  Fairy  Queen." 

Sometimes,  also,  the  repetition  is  necessary  in  order  to  make 
the  sense  clear ;  as,  "  Can  it  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that 
the  movement  of  political  and  religious  truth  is  rather  downwards 
from  the  govermtient  to  the  people,  than  upwards  from  the  people 
to  the  goi^ernment." 

Similarly,  a  succession  of  phrases  or  clauses  of  the  same  kind 
becomes  disagreeable. 


140  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

6.  The  practice  of  beginning  sentence  after  sentence  witn  "he" 
or  some  similar  word,  is  an  inelegance  into  which  young  writers 
are  very  apt  to  fall. 

7.  A  poetic  metaphor  should  not  be  used  to  illustrate  a  prosaic 
subject;  as,  "Consols  soared  to  94I-." 

8.  Incongruous  statements  should  not,  in  serious  composition, 
be  united  in  the  same  sentence ;  as,  "  He  was  a  loving  husband, 
a  tender  father,  and  a  good  shot." 

9.  A  literal  statement  should  not  follow  immediately  after  a 
metaphor ;  as,  "  He  was  the  father  of  chemistry,  and  brother  to 
the  Earl  of  Cork." 

EXERCISE  XLII. 

Fine  Writing. 

Direction.  —  Express  these  sentences  in  language  better  suited  to  the 
thought. 

1.  Those  individuals  were  eagerly  hastening  towards  their  pa- 
rental domicile. 

2.  That  institution  was  inaugurated  under  the  auspices  of  a 
most  distinguished  personage. 

3.  Previous  to  making  a  sudden  tran'sition,  you  should  execute 
a  survey  of  your  surroundings.     (Look  before,  etc.) 

4.  In  recompense  for  his  splendid  munificence,  he  was  made 
the  recipient  of  many  grateful  acknowledgments. 

5.  The  house  that  was  lately  in  process  of  erection,  has  been 
destroyed  in  its  entirety  by  the  devouring  element. 

6.  In  the  intensity  of  his  passion,  he  indulged  in  minatory 
expressions. 

7.  His  parental  relative  was  a  gentleman  long  identified  with 
the  building  interest. 

8.  Please  convey  to  me  that  dissecting  instrument. 

9.  A  petrified  body  of  rotary  motion  has  no  affinity  for  gra- 
mineous matter.     (A  rolling  stone,  etc.) 

10.  Pedal  teguments  artistically  illuminated  and  lubricated  for 
the  infinitesimal  compensation  of  five  cents  per  operation. 


ELEGANCE.  I4I 

11.  One  of  those  omnipresent  characters,  who,  as  if  in  pursu- 
ance of  some  previous  arrangement,  are  certain  to  be  encountered 
when  an  accident  occurs,  ventured  the  suggestion.     (A  bystander.) 

12.  While  pursuing  my  esoteric  cogitations  on  the  empyrean 
atmosphere,  I  was  approached  by  an  erubescent  damsel,  who 
informed  me  that  the  nocturnal  revelries  were  about  to  ensue. 

13.  I  opine  you  adorn  the  bountifully  furnished  table  of  the 
excellent  lady  who  provides  so  liberally  for  the  company  that 
assembles  around  her  hospitable  board. 

14.  When  the  luminary  of  day  had  driven  his  chariot  behind 
the  mountains,  the  eminent  agriculturists  began  to  discuss  the 
succulent  bivalves. 

15.  After  attending  divine  service,  a  vast  concourse  congre- 
gated to  behold  the  victims  of  unbridled  passions  launched  into 
eternity. 

16.  After  being  the  recipients  of  multitudinous  favors,  and  par- 
ticipating for  some  weeks  in  the  hospitalities  of  their  host,  they 
took  their  departure. 

17.  The  friends  speedily  called  into  requisition  the  services  of 
the  family  physician,  but  the  disease  had  taken  so  firm  a  hold 
of  his  system  that  after  a  few  hours  of  agony  his  spirit  winged  its 
flight  into  realms  unknown. 

18.  The  remains  of  the  departed  author  of  my  being  were 
placed  in  a  casket  and  conveyed  to  their  last  resting-place. 

19.  Before  she  was  led  to  the  hymeneal  altar,  she  had  charge 
of  the  cuUnary  department  of  a  prominent  hotel. 

20.  The  patrons  of  husbandry,  having  thoroughly  examined 
all  the  inventions  of  genius  to  be  found  within  the  machinery 
hall,  retired  to  an  adjoining  apartment  to  partake  of  some  liquid 
refreshments. 


142  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  XLIII. 

Keeping. 

Direction.  —  Correct  the  violations  of  the  rules  of  Keeping.  Give  a 
reason  for  each  change. 

1.  All  verbs  agree  with  their  subject. 

2.  The  fairest  of  her  daughters,  Eve. 

3.  The  first  project  was  to  shorten  discourse  by  cutting  poly- 
syllables into  one. 

4.  We  are  at  peace  with  all  the  world,  and  seek  to  maintain 
our  cherished  relations  of  amity  with  the  rest  of  mankind. 

5.  In  the  construction  of  the  Act,  "teacher"  shall  include 
female  as  well  as  male  teachers. 

6.  That  author  approaches  the  subject  from  an  unusual  stand- 
point. 

7.  The  brain  needs  rest  as  much,  if  not  more,  than  the  rest 
of  the  body. 

8.  He  looked  very  unnatural  after  he  had  received  that  un- 
xiatural  treatment. 

9.  He  successfully  avoided  threatening  evils,  and  steered  the 
ship  of  state  into  a  safe  harbor. 

10.  An  anxious  face  opened  the  door  and  led  us  upstairs. 

11.  The  chariot  of  revolution  is  rolling  onward  and  gnashing 
its  teeth  as  it  rolls. 

12.  I  was  sitting  at  the  table  enjoying  a  cup  of  coffee,  when  a 
gentle  voice  tapped  me  on  the  shoulder. 

13.  In  the  beginning  it  was  intended  that  all  men  should  marry 
but  one  wife. 

14.  He  was  a  firm  believer  in  the  immortal  gods  who  are  now 
dead. 

15.  Shakespeare  was  the  sun  among  the  lesser  lights  of  English 
poetry,  and  a  native  of  Stratford-on-Avon. 

16.  He  guided  the  people  from  the  quicksands  of  protection 
into  the  safe  harbor  of  free  trade,  and  saved  the  country  several 
millions. 


ELEGANCE.  143 

17.  They  were  refused  entrance  into,  and  forcibly  driven  from, 
the  house. 

18.  I  was  saiHng  in  a  vast  ocean,  without  other  help  than  tlie 
pole-star  of  the  ancients  and  the  rules  of  the  French  stage. 

19.  The  truth  is  that  truth  and  error  are  blended  together. 

20.  In  a  house  like  this  the  inmates  resemble  a  knight  in  an 
enchanted  castle. 

21.  At  the  news  of  a  Russian  war,  the  price  of  wheat  instantly 
soared  up  to  a  dollar  a  bushel. 

22.  He  had  sense  enough  not  to  use  that  word  in  that  sense. 

23.  If  the  loss  of  temporal  gain  be  the  gain  of  eternal  good, 
the  reverse  of  fortune  is  the  reverse  of  misfortune. 

24.  The  farmer  gave  orders  to  his  son  to  order  the  hired  man 
to  put  the  reaper  in  good  order. 

25.  When  I  was  there,  there  were  friends  of  mine  there  also. 


EXERCISE   XLIV. 

General  Exercise  on  Elegance. 

Direction.  —  Reconstruct  these  sentences  so  as  to  correct  all  violations  of 
the  laws  of  Elegance. 

1.  We  are  a  firm  believer  in  keeping  pace  with  the  times. 

2.  The  scene  is  laid  on  an  inland  lake. 

3.  He  was  tired  with  his  journey  and  sad  and  dispirited. 

4.  He  never  seemed  to  be  capable  of  it. 

5.  Generally  speaking,  a  prudent  general  will  in  the  face  of 
odds  avoid  a  general  engagement. 

6.  Shainefacedness  may  recommend  many  more  than  money. 

7.  The  essayist  could  not  find  a  trace  of  some  of  those  worthies 
of  whom  the  world  was  not  worthy. 

8.  Everybody  knows  that  that  knows  anything  at  all. 

9.  It  was  in  vain  they  reached  the  other  side;  such  fate  does 
fate  assign  us. 

10.  Thou  strokedst  me  and  niad'st  much  of  me. 


144  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

11.  You  know,  when  you  don't  know  where  you  are  going,  you 
generally  take  a  rather  slow  pace. 

12.  Though  generally  scrupulous,  he  did  not  scruple  to  do  that 
base  act. 

13.  After  describing  so  interesting  a  meeting  concerning  the 
rival  parties  contending  for  supremacy,  the  speaker  paused. 

14.  They  found  that  at  an  inroad  of  the  Indians  he  had  been 
taken  prisoner. 

15.  As  we  approached  the  church  we  met  crowds  of  respect- 
able people  hurrying  towards  it,  as  if  afraid  of  being  too  late  to 
obtain  a  good  seat,  or  even  admittance,  etc. 

16.  She  always  displays  a  cheerful  temper  and  pleasant  humor. 

17.  Tediousness  is  the  most  fatal  of  all  faults. 

18.  He  attempted  to  express  the  inexplicable  pleasure  he  felt. 

19.  Moral  faults  only,  and  then  only  extremely  rarely,  should 
be  corrected  by  ridicule. 

20.  Boys  are  sensitive,  and  to  ridicule  more  than  anything  else, 
especially  where  both  sexes  are  taught  in  the  same  room. 

21.  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often 
be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of  fortune. 

22.  It  is  hard  to  make  good  the  pretence  of  a  good  quality. 

23.  He  refused  taking  any  further  notice  of  it. 

24.  It  is  in  my  power  to  refuse  you,  and  since  I  have  the  power 
to  do  it  I  will  do  it. 

25.  They  directed  their  course  in  the  direction  of  their  father's 
house. 

26.  The  night  which  descended  upon  her  was  the  night  (or  the 
darkness  ?)  of  an  Arctic  summer. 

27.  A  man  of  his  sense  should  have  a  higher  sense  of  honor. 

28.  I  am  acquainted  with  a  certain  man  who  has  a  certain  in- 
come obtained  from  the  investment  of  a  certain  sum. 

29.  He  was  also  known  to,  and  visited  by,  Sheridan. 

30.  The  devouring  element  consumed  the  edifice  before  its 
progress  could  be  arrested. 

31.  He  abruptly  turned  to  the  left  and  left  the  house. 


ELEGANCE.  I45 

32.  The  relations  between  maid  and  mistress  became  sorely 
strained. 

33.  He  is  the  individual  who  took  the  initiative  in  introducing 
piscine  preserves  in  this  locality. 

34.  I  look  upon  it  as  my  duty,  so  long  as  I  keep  within  the 
bounds  of  truth  and  duty,  and  of  decency. 

35.  Listlessly  talking  over  village  gossip,  or  telling  sleepy,  end- 
less stories  about  nothing,  they  used  to  sit  here  in  the  shade 
through  a  long  lazy  summer's  day.  (Here  .  .  .  through  .  .  . 
talking  .  .  .  nothing.) 

36.  Therefore  nothing,  neither  learning  nor  knowledge  of  the 
world,  neither  forensic  acuteness,  nor  that  eloquence  which  charms 
pohtical  assemblies,  was  wanting  to  the  defence  of  Clive.  (To 
the  defence  .  .  .  assemblies.) 

37.  As  they  proceeded  down  the  hill  the  rocks  gradually  receded 
from  view. 

38.  Societies  like  these  will  help  to  educate  society  and  to  over- 
throw its  drinking  usages. 

39.  And  see,  first  of  all,  that  you  have  hearts,  and  sound  hearts, 
too,  to  give. 

40.  After  the  appetizing  banquet  had  been  done  full  justice  to, 
the  party  spent  an  extended  period  in  pleasantly  tripping  the  hght 
fantastic. 

41.  She  asked  him  to  visit  her  paternal  domicile,  when  the 
diurnal  luminary  sought  his  nocturnal  resting-place  behind  the 
occidental  horizon. 

42.  The  Litde  Gentleman  lies  where  he  longed  to  lie,  among 
the  old  names  and  the  old  bones  of  the  Boston  people.  (Should 
old  be  repeated  ?) 


146  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 

LESSON    XXIX. 

III.    THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   PARAGRAPHS. 

Hitherto  we  have  considered  only  separate  words  and  single 
sentences.  We  now  come  to  study  the  connection  of  sentences 
in  paragraphs,  and  of  paragraphs  in  sketches. 

The  paragraph  is  a  larger  division  of  discourse  than  the  sen- 
tence, and,  like  it,  should  deal  with  a  smgle  Ujpic.  It  is,  in  fact, 
a  whole  composition  and  should  therefore  be  complete  in  itself. 
It  aids  the  reader  by  showing  him  where  the  development  of  a 
point  begins  and  where  it  ends. 

Principles.  — The  leading  principles  that  govern  the  formation 
of  the  paragraph  are  :  — 

I.   The  Topic  Sentence. 

The  opening  sentence  should  set  forth  the  subject  of  the  para- 
graph.    This  sentence  is  generally  most  effective  when  short. 

Example.  —  "  The  government  went  on,  oppressing  at  home 
and  blundering  abroad.  (Topic  sentence.)  A  war  was  foolishly 
undertaken  against  France,  and  more  foolishly  conducted.  Buck- 
ingham led  an  expedition  against  Rh6,  and  failed  ignominiously. 
In  the  meantime  soldiers  were  billeted  on  the  people.  Crimes 
of  which  ordinary  justice  should  have  taken  cognizance  were 
punished  by  martial  law.  Near  eighty  gentlemen,"  etc.  The 
paragraph  goes  on  enumerating  other  acts  of  "  oppressing  "  and 
"  blundering." 

Sometimes  one  or  more  sentences  at  the  beginning  of  a  para- 
graph are  intended  to  connect  it  with  the  one  that  precedes,  or 
to  prepare  the  way  for  the  topic  sentence. 

Example.  —  "  These  were  mere  follies.  (Connective  and  intro- 
ductory sentence.)  But  the  spirit  excited  by  these  writers  pro- 
duced more  serious  effects.  (Topic  sentence.)  The  greater  part 
of  the  crimes  which  disgraced  the  revolution,"  etc. 


THE    COiNSTRUCTION    OF    PARi^GRAt  HS.  1 47 

2.    Arrangement. 

The  different  sentences  that  compose  a  paragraph  must  foUcv^ 
one  another  in  natural  and  logical  order.  It  they  do  not,  the 
attention  of  the  reader  is  distracted  and  he  tinds  it  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  keep  the  thread  of  the  discourse. 

Example.  —  "  On  the  third  day  after  the  action  the  dead  were 
buried  in  the  naval  churchyard ;  the  ceremony  was  made  as 
public  and  as  solemn  as  the  occasion  required.  A  public  monu- 
ment was  erected  upon  the  spot  where  the  slain  were  gathered 
together.  A  subscription  was  opened  on  the  day  of  the  funeral 
for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers,  and  collections  in  aid  of  it  through- 
out all  the  churches  in  the  kingdom.  This  appeal  to  the  feelings 
of  the  people  was  made  with  circumstances  which  gave  it  full 
effect.  A  monument  was  raised  in  the  midst  of  the  church  ; 
young  maidens,  dressed  in  white,  stood  round  it ;  and  a  suitable 
oration  was  delivered  from  the  pulpit." 

In  this  paragraph  the  sentences  do  not  follow  the  order  of 
events. 

3.   Continuity. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  sentences  of  a  paragraph  follow  one 
another  in  proper  order ;  the  connection  of  each  with  the  preced- 
ing context  must  be  made  clear  and  unmistakable.  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  sentences  should  be  connected  in  a 
clear,  smooth,  easy,  and  natural  manner,  so  that  the  thought  may 
be  carried  on  without  interruption  from  the  beginning  to  the 
close. 

How  Attained.  —  Continuity  is  secured  in  various  ways  :  — 

I.  By  the  use  of  conjunctions,  adverbs,  pronouns,  or  connect- 
ing phrases ;  as : — 

"One  person  might  have  fallen  asleep,  but  two —  but  three  — 
that  was  a  mere  impossibility.  And  even  supposing  all  three 
together  with  the  baby  locked  in  sleep,  still  how  unaccountable 
was  this  utter  silence  !  Most  naturally  at  this  moment  something 
like  hysterical  horror  overshadowed  the  poor  girl.     And  now,  at 


148  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

last,  she  rang  the   bell  with   violence.     This  done,   she    paused. 
Self-command  enough  she  still  retained." 

The  Connectives  Used. — Among  the  most  common  connec- 
tive words  and  phrases  are  :  — 

a.  Those  called  cumulative  j  as,  —  and,  also,  so,  besides,  further, 
moreover,  first,  secondly. 

b.  Those  expressing  consequence,  similarity,  repetition,  or  the 
repetition  of  a  subject ;  as,  —  therefore,  hence,  consequently, 
accordingly,  in  this  way,  again,  once  more,  in  fact,  upon  this,  in 
that  case,  on  the  other  hand,  to  proceed,  to  return. 

c.  Those  expressing  opposition  or  negation ;  as,  —  otherwise, 
nevertheless,  still,  however,  but,  on  the  contrary,  conversely. 

d.  Those  expressing  suspension ;  as,  —  some  .  .  .  others  ;  partly 
.  .  .  partly ;  undoubtedly  .  .  .  but ;  indeed  .  .  .  yet. 

2.  Connectives  are  often  omitted,  and  other  means  employed 
for  joining  sentences  ;  as  :  — 

a.  The  repetition  of  some  word  or  words ;  as,  "  His  canny 
humor  lights  up  the  political  and  theological  controversies  of  the 
times  with  quaint  incisive  phrases.  His  reading  was  extensive'; 
and  he  was  a  voluminous  author  on  subjects  which  ranged  from 
predestinarianism  to  tobacco.  But  his  shrewdness  and  learning 
only  left  him  the  wisest  fool  in  Christendom." 

b.  The  inversion  of  the  order  of  the  words,  or  the  giving  of 
some  word  or  words  a  position  that  enables  them  to  point 
definitely  to  what  was  said  in  the  preceding  sentence  ;  as,  "  Enter- 
ing the  gulf,  he  endeavored  to  find  the  river  Darien.  This  river 
he  could  not  discover." 

3.  Sometimes  the  relation  of  the  sentences  is  such  that  the 
connection  is  evident  without  the  insertion  of  any  joining  word  or 
phrase.     This  is  the  case  :  — 

a.  When  the  thoughts  are  very  closely  related ;  as,  "  He 
turned  his  horse  towards  Thame,  where  he  arrived  almost  faint- 
ing with  agony.  The  surgeon  dressed  his  wounds.  But  there 
was  no  hope." 

b.  When  the  sentence  explains  or  repeats  the  one  going  before 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    PARAGRAPHS.  I49 

it;  as,  "I  need  not  enlarge  upon  the  subject.     The  case  is  per- 
fectly plain." 

c.  In  cumulative  statements;  as  in  2  («),  p.  148. 

d.  In  a  statement  of  consequence  ;  as,  "  Further  resistance  on 
your  part  is  hopeless.     I  ask  the  surrender  of  your  army." 

4.  Unity. 

The  paragraph  should  possess  unity ;  that  is,  every  statement 
should  be  subservient  to  one  principal  affirmation,  and  that  prin- 
cipal affirmation  should  be  kept  prominent  throughout  the  para- 
graph. Every  sentence  must  be  part  of  one  whole,  and  that  whole 
should  be  the  presentation  of  one  point  of  a  subject,  or  one  part 
in  description  or  narration. 

Example.  —  The  following  paragraph  illustrates  how  every  sen- 
tence should  bear  on  the  topic  sentence  :  — 

"  What,  then,  are  the  proper  encouragements  of  genius  ?  (Topic 
sentence.)  I  answer,  subsistence  and  respect ;  for  these  are  re- 
wards congenial  to  nature.  Every  animal  has  an  aliment  suited 
to  its  constitution.  (General  illustration.)  The  heavy  ox  seeks 
nourishment  from  earth  ;  the  light  chameleon  has  been  supposed 
to  exist  on  air.  (Particular  illustration.)  A  sparer  diet  than  even 
this  satisfies  the  man  of  true  genius,  for  he  makes  a  luxurious  ban- 
quet upon  empty  applause.  (Comparison.)  It  is  this  alone  which 
has  inspired  all  that  ever  was  truly  great  and  noble  among  us.  It 
is,  as  Cicero  finely  calls  it,  the  echo  of  virtue.  (Amplification.) 
Avarice  is  the  passion  of  inferior  natures  ;  money  the  pay  of  the 
common  herd.  (Contrasting  sentences.)  The  author  who  draws 
his  quill  merely  to  take  a  purse  no  more  deserves  success  than  he 
who  presents  a  pistol.     (Conclusion.)" 

5.   Due  Proportion. 

As  in  the  sentence,  a  due  proportion  must  exist  between  the 
principal  and  the  subordinate  statement.  This  is  a  principle  of 
symmetry  that  applies  to  every  work  of  art,  and  the  utmost  skill 


150  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

and  much  practice  are  required  to  give  each  part  of  a  paragraph 
that  due  bulk  and  importance  which  rounds  it  out  and  gives  finish 
and  completeness  to  the  whole. 

Exa-nipk. — The  sentence  quoted  as  an  example  of  Unity  may 
be  considered  under  this  head.  It  will  be  found  symmetrical  and 
well  balanced. 

6.    Parau.el  Construction. 

If  the  matter  of  a  paragraph  is  such  that  consecutive  sen- 
tences repeat,  expand,  or  illustrate  the  same  idea,  these  sentences 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  formed  alike. 

Example.  —  "We  must  not  omit  to  mention  that  those  who 
were  afterwards  the  nu^^t  distinguished  ornaments  of  the  King's 
party,  supported  the  bill  of  attainder.  It  is  almost  certain  that 
Hyde  voted  for  it.  It  is  quite  certain  that  Falkland  both  voted 
and  spoke  for  it.  The  opinion  of  Hampden,  as  far  as  can  be 
collected  from  a  very  obscure  note  of  one  of  his  speeches,  seems 
to  have  been  that  the  proceeding  by  bill  was  unnecessary,  and 
that  it  would  be  a  better  course  to  obtain  ju'dgment  on  the 
impeachment." 

Caution.  —  Parallel  constructions  should  not  be  followed  when 
they  become  monotonous  or  otherwise  lessen  the  vigor  of  dis- 
course. 

7.   Variety. 

In  the  mechanical  construction  of  the  paragraph  every  device 
should  be  taken  in  order  to  prevent  monotony.  The  sentences 
should  be  of  different  length  ;  some  short,  some  long  ;  they  should 
be  varied  in  construction,  simple,  periodic,  and  so  on ;  and  they 
should  be  connected  with  all  possible  variety  of  method. 

Connection  of  Paragraphs.  — The  connection  of  paragraphs 
requires  the  same  care  as  the  connection  of  sentences,  and  is 
effected  by  similar  methods. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  PARAGRAPHS.        15I 

EXERCISE  XLV. 

The  Construction  of  Paragraphs. 

Direction. —  Study  these  sentences  till  you  understand  them.  Then 
form  them  into  paragraphs  that  follow  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  preceding 
Lesson. 

I .  Insects  are  the  curse  of  tropical  climates.  The  bete  rouge 
lays  the  foundation  of  a  tremendous  ulcer.  In  a  moment  you  are 
covered  with  ticks.  Chigoes  bury  themselves  in  your  flesh. 
They  hatch  a  colony  of  young  chigoes  in  a  few  hours.  They  will 
not  hve  together.  Every  chigoe  sets  up  a  separate  ulcer.  Flies 
get  entry  into  your  mouth,  into  your  eyes,  into  your  nose  ;  you 
eat  flies,  drink  flies,  and  breathe  flies.  Lizards,  cockroaches,  and 
snakes,  get  into  the  bed  ;  ants  eat  up  the  books ;  scorpions  sting 
you  on  the  foot.  Everything  bites,  stings,  or  bruises ;  every 
minute  you  are  wounded  by  some  piece  of  animal  life.  An  in- 
sect with  eleven  legs  is  swimming  in  your  teacup,  a  nondescript 
with  nine  wings  is  struggling  in  the  small  beer,  or  a  caterpillar 
with  several  dozen  eyes  in  his  belly  is  hastening  over  the  bread 
and  butter.  All  nature  is  alive.  It  seems  to  be  gathering  its 
hosts  to  eat  you  up  as  you  are  standing  out  of  your  coat  and 
breeches.  Such  are  the  tropics.  This  reconciles  us  to  our  dews, 
fogs,  and  drizzles.  This  helps  us  to  put  up  with  our  apothecaries 
rushing  about  with  gargles  and  tinctures.  It  helps  us  to  endure 
our  coughs,  sore  throats,  and  swelled  faces.  The  danger  seems 
to  be  much  less  with  snakes  and  wild  beasts  if  you  conduct  your- 
self like  a  gentleman.  If  you  pass  on  gently,  you  may  walk  un- 
hurt within  a  yard  of  the  Labairi  snake.  If  you  rush  upon  him, 
he  will  put  you  to  death.  The  tagman  knocks  you  down  with  a 
blow  of  his  paw,  if  suddenly  interrupted.  He  will  run  away  if 
you  give  him  time.  Most  animals  look  upon  man  as  a  very  ugly 
customer.  They  do  not  care  to  attack  him.  They  do  it  for  food 
or  in  self-defence.  Mr.  Waterton  made  a  Labairi  snake  bite  itself. 
No  harm  ensued.  No  harm  would  ensue  if  a  sinful  soldier  gave 
himself  a  thousand  lashes. 


152  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

2.    Still  there  were  not  knighthoods  enough.     In  1783  the  king 
instituted  the  Order  of  St.  Patrick.     Scotland  had  its  most  ancient 
Order  of  the  Thistle.     No  order  of  knighthood   had,  until  that 
time,  been  appropriated  to  Ireland.     The  Hanoverian  Guelphic 
Order  of  Knighthood  had  been  opened  to  the  ambition  of  Eng- 
lishmen ;  William  IV.,  during  his  reign,  added  to  its  roll  a  goodly 
company  of  English  knights.     The  Order  of  the  Bath,  originally 
a  military  order,  was  enlarged  in  1815  ;  again  in  1847,  the  Queen 
added  a  civil  division  to  the  order.     This  was  to  comprise  such 
persons  as  by  their  personal  services  to  the  Crown,  or  by  the  per- 
formance of  public  duties,  had  merited  the  royal  favor.     Beside 
these  several  titled  orders,  may  be  noticed  officers  enjoying  naval 
and  military  rank,  whose  numbers  were  extraordinarily  augmented 
by  the  long  war  with  France,  and  by  the  extension  of  the  British 
possessions  abroad.     Men  holding  high  offices  in  the  State,  the 
Church,  the  Law,  the  Universities,  and  other  great  incorporations 
have   associated   their   powers   and   influence  with  those  of  the 
nobility.     The  continual  growth   and   accumulation   of  property 
have  been  a  source  of  increasing  strength  to  the  British  nobles. 
Wealth  is  in  itself  an  aristocracy,  and  it  may  desire  to  rival  the 
nobility  of  a  country,  even  to  detract  from  its  glory.     In  this  land 
of  associations,  it  seeks  only  to  enjoy  the  smiles  and  favors  of  the 
aristocracy,  craves  admission  to  its  society,  aspires  to  its  connec- 
tion, is  ambitious  of  its  dignities  ;  the  learned  professions  and  com- 
merce and  manufactures  and  public  employments  have  created  an 
enormous  body  of  persons  of  independent  income  ;    some    con- 
nected with  the  landed  gentry,  others  with  the  commercial  classes  : 
so  all  three   form  part  of  the  independent  "  gentry."     They  are 
spread  over  the  fairest  parts  of  the  country.     Noble  cities  have 
been  built  for  their  accommodation.     Bath,  Cheltenham,  Leam- 
ington, Brighton,  attest  their  numbers,  their  opulence.     They  form 
a  strong  outwork  of  the  peerage,  with  much  social  influence  and 
political  weight,  and  uphold  its  ascendency  by  moral  as  well  as  by 
political  support.     Professions  lean  as  a  body  on  the  higher  ranks 
of  society ;  the  Church  is  pecuharly  connected  with  the  landed 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  PARAGRAPHS.        I  53 

interest ;  everywhere  the  clergy  cleave  to  power ;  the  vast  lay 
patronage  vested  in  the  proprietors  of  the  soil,  draws  close  the 
bond  between  them  and  the  Church ;  the  legal  and  medical  pro- 
fessions, being  mainly  supported  by  wealthy  patrons,  have  the  same 
political  and  social  interests.  How  vast  a  community  of  rank  and 
of  wealth  and  of  intelligence  do  these  several  classes  of  society 
constitute  !  The  House  of  Lords,  in  truth,  is  not  only  a  privileged 
body,  but  a  great  representative  institution,  standing  out  as  the 
embodiment  of  the  aristocratic  influence  and  sympathies  of  the 
country. 

3.  All  was  now  confusion  and  despondency.  The  provisions 
had  been  so  ill  managed  by  the  Committee,  that  there  was  no 
longer  food  for  the  troops.  The  Highlanders  consequently  de- 
serted by  hundreds ;  and  the  Earl,  broken-hearted  by  his  misfor- 
tune, yielded  to  the  urgency  of  those  who  pertinaciously  insisted 
that  he  should  march  into  the  Lowlands.  The  little  army  there- 
fore hastened  to  the  shore  of  Loch  Long,  passed  that  inlet  by 
night  in  boats,  and  landed  in  Dumbartonshire.  Hither,  on  the 
following  morning,  came  news  that  the  frigates  had  forced  a  pas- 
sage, that  all  the  Earl's  ships  had  been  taken,  and  that  Elphinstone 
had  fled  from  Ealan  Ghierig  without  a  blow,  leaving  the  castle 
and  stores  to  the  enemy.  All  that  remained  was  to  invade  the 
Lowlands  under  every  disadvantage.  Argyle  resolved  to  make  a 
bold  push  for  Glasgow,  but  as  soon  as  this  resolution  was  an- 
nounced, the  very  men  who  had,  up  to  that  moment,  been  urging 
him  to  hasten  into  the  low  country,  took  fright,  argued,  remon- 
strated, and  when  argument  and  remonstrance  proved  vain,  laid  a 
scheme  for  seizing  the  boats,  making  their  own  escape,  and  leav- 
ing their  General  and  his  clansmen  to  conquer  or  perish  unaided. 
This  scheme  failed,  and  the  poltroons  who  had  formed  it  were 
compelled  to  share  with  braver  men  the  risks  of  the  last  venture. 
During  the  march  through  the  country  which  Ues  between  Loch 
Long  and  Loch  Lomond,  the  insurgents  were  constantly  infested 
by  parties  of  militia.  Some  skirmishes  took  place  in  which  the 
Earl  had  the  advantage,  but  the  bands  which  he  repelled,  falling 


154  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

back  before  him,  spread  the  tidings  of  his  approach,  and,  soon 
after  he  had  crossed  the  river  Leven,  he  found  a  strong  body  of 
regular  and  irregular  troops  prepared  to  encounter  him.  He  was 
for  giving  battle.  Ayloffe  was  of  the  same  opinion.  Hume,  on 
the  other  hand,  declared  that  to  fight  would  be  madness.  He  saw 
one  regiment  in  scarlet ;  more  might  be  behind.  To  attack  such 
a  force  was  to  rush  on  certain  death.  The  best  course  was  to 
remain  quiet  till  night,  and  then  give  the  enemy  the  slip.  A  little 
altercation  followed,  which  was  with  difficulty  quieted  by  the  medi- 
ation of  Rumbold.  It  was  now  evening.  The  hostile  armies  en- 
camped at  no  great  distance  from  each  other.  The  Earl  ventured 
to  propose  a  night  attack,  and  was  again  overruled. 


EXERCISE   XLVI, 

Gener.'vl  Exercise  on  Sentences. 

Direction.  —  Study  these  sentences.  If  you  hnd  a  fault  in  any  of  them, 
state  the  reason  for  any  change  you  propose. 

1.  The  King  was  wounded  in  the  eye,  by  an  arrow,  after  long 
fighting. 

2.  In  his  old  age  the  man  became  wrinkled  and  broken  and 
bowed. 

3.  They  call  me  wise,  although  I  am  not  wise,  when  they  want 
to  reproach  you. 

4.  The  house  was  crowded  to  its  utmost  capacity  ;  every  avail- 
able seat  was  occupied  and  many  remained  standing  till  the  close. 

5.  I  had  an  indistinct  glimpse  of  Mr.  H.  flying  over  the  fence, 
and  I  rolled  comfortably  out  of  the  sleigh,  wrapped  in  the  buffalo 
robe,  under  a  pine-tree. 

6.  One  of  our  expert  wheelmen  was  caught  in  a  machine  fan- 
ning mill  a  few  days  ago.     The  effect  is  likely  to  be  permanent. 

7.  I  never  saw  a  man  in  the  whole  course  of  my  life  and  the 
doctors  all  said  so,  that  observed  directions  or  took  medicine 
better  than  he  did. 


GENERAL  EXERCISE  OX  SENTENCES.         1 55 

8.  When  the  locusts  approached  the  inhabitants  shut  themseh'es 
up  to  keep  them  out,  but  it  is  impossible  as  they  are  so  thick. 

9.  War  and  famine  and  death  had  made  them  discouraged. 

10.  When  he  was  first  arrested,  he  said  that  he  and  Benwell 
came  to  the  outskirts  of  Woodstock  that  day  and  he  remained 
there. 

11.  No  real  reason  can  be  given  for  such  differences;  it  is 
simply  the  case  that  the  one  is  customary,  or  what  we  are  used  to, 
and  the  other  not. 

12.  The  appearance  of  the  serf,  or  bondsman,  was  more  sad 
and  sullen  than  Wamba. 

13.  His  absent  friends  had  every  confidence  in  him  and 
believed  their  deposits  were  perfectly  safe  in  his  hands;  and 
when  he  told  them  shortly  after  the  bank  had  failed  that  they  had 
plenty  to  pay  every  dollar  they  owed,  and  that  all  that  they  asked 
was  a  little  time,  and  the  bank  would  be  open  in  a  few  days,  they 
fully  believed  him. 

14.  It  is  for  this  class  that  the  following  directions  and  sugges- 
tions are  offered,  and  which,  if  carried  out,  will  ensure  healthy, 
luxuriant  plants. 

15.  Flower-pots  should  be  washed  as  often  as  mould  or  fungus 
growth  appears,  to  allow  evaporation  and  a  free  access  of  air. 

16.  A  periphrasis  is  a  circumlocutory  and  pleonastic  cycle  of 
oratorial  sonorosity,  circumscribing  an  atom  of  ideality,  enveloped 
in  verbal  profunditv. 

17.  You  have  the  power  of  sending  your  name  down  through 
all  times,  illustrated  by  deeds  of  higher  fame  and  more  useful 
import,  than  ever  were  done  within  these  walls. 

18.  Let  us  inquire  whether  the  present  system  of  education  is 
harmful  to  the  present  generation  or  not. 

19.  As  Addison's  subjects  are  common,  so  his  language  was 
language  that  could  be  understood,  and  his  essays  are  somewhat 
long  sometimes  and  tedious. 

20.  Some,  perhaps,  are  not  so  fortunate  as  to  have  a  true  friend 
in  their  teacher,  a  kind  of  guide  ;  for  I  think  if  teachers  knew  the 


156  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

way  in  which  children  imitate  their  actions  and  follow  their 
example  they  would  be  more  careful  to  make  that  example  more 
like  the  divine  teacher  of  humanity. 

21.  As  the  locusts  fell  to  the  earth  they  were  trampled  under 
the  hoof  of  the  travellers'  horses  and  they  did  not  miss  them  their 
numbers  were  so  great. 

22.  The  city  has  a  large  dock- yard  compared  with  its  size. 

23.  He  is  a  boy  that  has  nothing  the  matter  with  him,  that 
takes  the  relish  of  this  world  out. 

24.  He  was  not  an  author,  but  he  was  a  bard. 

25.  Man  has  two  natures,  that  of  spirituality  and  that  of  being 
corporeal,  which  always  may  be  considered  separate. 

26.  The  doctor  answered  after  a  pause  for  a  moment,  and  rub- 
bing his  head  at  the  same  time,  that  it  was  the  only  thing  he  could 
do. 

27.  A  cloth  served  in  some  degree  to  protect  the  dignitaries 
who  occupied  the  chair  from  the  weather. 

28.  He  rode,  not  a  mule,  like  his  companion,  but  a  strong 
hackney  horse. 

29.  I  was  not,  like  His  Grace  of  Bedford,  dandled,  rocked,  and 
swaddled  into  a  legislator. 

30.  You  have  already  been  informed  of  the  sale  of  Ford's 
Theatre,  where  Mr.  Lincoln  was  assassinated,  for  religious  pup 
poses. 

31.  The  works  of  God  are  very  wonderful. 

32.  The  duke  owed  Lord  Dice  about  five  thousand  pounds, 
and  Temple  Grace  owed  him  as  many  hundreds ;  Lord  Castleford 
also  owed  him  seven  hundred  and  fifty,  and  the  ba-ron  owed  him 
a  small  sum. 

;^;^.    As  smoke  is  driven  away,  so  chase  (drive?)  them  away. 

34.  We  played  croquet  in  the  morning ;  we  played  lawn  tennis 
in  the  afternoon  ;  and  we  played  chess  in  the  evening. 

35.  No  one  seems  to  have  believed  our  report.    (Interrogation.) 

36.  He  worked  all  night  in  his  office,  he  worked  next  day  at 
his  trade,  and  he  worked  at  his  garden  in  the  evening. 


GENERAL  EXERCISE  ON  SENTENCES.         1 57 

37.  He  became,  however,  as  time  passed  on,  sensual,  selfish, 
despotic,  and  cruel. 

38.  A  diminutive  specimen  of  the  feminine  gender,  rejoicing 
in  the  euphonious  cognomen  of  Mary,  was  possessed  of  a  young 
animal  called,  in  common  parlance,  a  lamb.  The  exterior  woolly 
covering  of  the  quadruped  was  in  color  white  as  the  driven  snow  ; 
and  to  all  places  and  localities  whithersoever  the  said  Mary  in 
her  wanderings  did  perambulate,  the  aforesaid  small  quadruped 
in  like  manner  was  just  as  certain  to  peregrinate. 

39.  Resolved,  That  this  Association  expresses  the  regret  with 
which  they  have  heard  of  the  death  of  Mr.  J.  B.,  who  added  to 
great  ability  the  virtues  of  courtesy  and  kindness  to  the  other 
members  of  his  profession,  coupled  with  the  highest  integrity,  and 
they  desire  to  convey  to  Mrs.  B.  and  family  their  heartfelt  sym- 
pathy in  a  bereavement,  that  is  felt  by  the  profession  throughout 
the  province. 

40.  Addison  suffered  much  from  attacks  of  asthma,  and  died 
in  the  calmness  of  a  confident  trust'in  God. 

41.  He  fell  forward  suddenly  one  day  whilst  gardening  with 
his  head  in  a  bed  of  mignonette,  and  when  taken  up  was  as  dead 
as  a  stone. 

42.  A  man  finds  himself  pleased,  he  does  not  know  how  or 
why  with  the  cheerfulness  of  his  companion ;  it  is  like  a  sudden 
sunshine  that  awakens  a  secret  delight  in  the  mind  without  his 
attending  to  it. 

43.  "  If  you  wish  to  find  the  Professor,"  said  the  student,  "  cru- 
cify the  quadrangle,  ascend  the  grades,  make  a  dextral  vert,  and 
you  will  find  him  perambulating  his  domicile  or  prospecting  his 
fenestrum. 

44.  Along  the  ranks  go  officer  and  sergeant  until  the  front  rank 
is  reached. 

45.  Our  hearts  will  go  out  to  those  that  have  helped  to  make  the 
Convention  days  profitable,  never  to  be  forgotten,  and  delightful. 

46.  Being  deeply  sensible  of  the  increasing  evils  caused  by 
intemperance,  alarmed  at  the  dangers  of,  and  commiserating  the 


158  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

misery  caused  by  intemperance,  we  believe  it  has  become  our  duty 
to  unite  our  efforts  for  its  extermination. 

47.  The  secretary  shall  read  the  minutes  and  all  the  papers 
ordered  to  be  read. 

48.  In  a  short  editorial  in  our  last  number,  we  pointed  out  the 
want  in  our  school  system  of  any  attention  being  paid  to  the 
artistic  sensibilities  of  our  pupils. 

49.  The  old  soil  should  be  picked  out  from  the  outer  edges  of 
the  roots,  care  being  taken  not  to  break  the  roots  too  much,  the 
object  of  re-potting  being  to  not  only  give  a  larger-sized  pot,  but 
making  the  soil  more  porous  by  renewing  as  in  cultivating  land. 

50.  His  reign  was  like  the  course  of  a  meteor,  which  shoots 
along  the  face  of  heaven,  which  sheds  around  an  unnecessary  and 
portentous  light,  which  is  swallowed  up  by  universal  darkness. 

51.  The  best  possible  way  to  learn  geography  would  probably 
be  to  travel  through  the  country  ;  perhaps  the  next  best  way  is  by 
studying  the  progress  of  a  war  in  the  newspapers  with  the  aid  of 
maps. 

52.  If  the  formation  of  character  is  one  of  the  aims  of  the 
teacher,  as  we  have  often  insisted,  let  him  be  excessively  cautious 
how  he  ridicules. 

53.  We  spoke  lately  of  discouragement  as  being  one  of  the 
strongest  wasters  of  brain  power  ;  there  is  a  method  employed  by 
some  teachers  to  correct  faults  which  is  even  worse  in  its  injurious 
results  —  ridicule. 

54.  Joseph  Wilson  Swan,  the  electric  light  inventor,  lives  ele- 
gantly at  Bromley,  England  ;  and  is  described  as  a  handsome  man 
with  a  noble  head  set  on  a  rather  long  neck,  a  distinguishing 
character  of  the  Swan  family. 

55.  Why  remain  in  the  land  of  snow,  when  you  can  visit  New 
Orleans  and  return  for  ^31.85,  where  the  magnolia  is  in  bloom. 

56.  A  gentleman  once  drove  up  to  a  hotel,  and  giving  his  horse 
into  the  care  of  the  hostler  said  :  "  Extricate  this  quadruped  from 
the  vehicle,  stabulate  him,  supply  him  with  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  nutritious  aliment,  and  when  the  Aurora  of  morn  shall  again 


GENERAL  EXERCISE  ON  SENTENCES.         1 59 

dawn,  I  will  amply  repay  you  for  your  amiable  hospitality."  The 
hostler,  amazed,  hastened  in  to  tell  his  master  that  a  Dutchman 
wanted  to  see  him. 

57.  Answer  my  prayer  which  is,  if  you  dwell  on  this  island  or 
no,  and  that  you  inform  me  how  to  conduct  myself. 

58.  All  these  tales  were  told  in  that  drowsy  tone  that  men  talk 
in  in  the  dark. 

59.  The  expression  of  his  face  showed  no  more  self-denial  than 
his  dress  that  he  despised  earthly  pomp. 

60.  He  was  a  man  of  many  accomplishments  and  virtues, 
thoughtful  in  his  doings,  winning  in  his  address,  a  kind  friend,  a 
faithful  and  loving  husband,  an  affectionate  father,  and  he  played 
melodious  tunes  on  the  jews-harp. 

61.  The  French  foot  guards  are  dressed  in  blue  and  all  the 
marching  regiments  in  white,  which  has  a  very  foolish  appearance 
for  soldiers,  and  as  for  blue  regimentals,  it  is  only  fit  for  the  Horse 
Guards  Blue  or  the  Artillery. 

62.  Up  the  perfume-swept  avenue  of  love,  and  under  the  rose- 
ate archway  of  hymen,  they  had  passed  into  the  joy-lit  realms  of 
that  higher  and  holier  existence  where  soul  meets  soul  on  hmpid 
waves  of  ecstatic  feeling,  and  hearts  touch  hearts  through  the 
blended  channel  of  lips  in  rapture  linked. 

63.  The  author  of  the  Waverley  Novels  was  not  only  remarkable 
for  his  talent ;  he  was  equally  remarkable  for  his  industry. 

64.  I  heard  a  cobbler  who  could  scarcely  put  a  sole  on  a  shoe 
say  that  the  soul  is  not  immortal,  and  his  sole  reason  was  that  he 
could  not  believe  it. 

65.  But  though  we  think  the  conduct  of  the  regicides  blam- 
able,  that  of  Milton  appears  to  us  in  a  very  different  light.  The 
deed  was  done.  It  could  not  be  undone.  The  evil  was  incurred. 
The  object  was  to  render  it  as  small  as  possible.  We  censure  the 
chiefs  of  the  army  for  not  yielding  to  the  popular  opinion.  We 
cannot  censure  Milton  for  wishing  to  change  that  opinion.  (Dis- 
cuss the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  inserting  connectives 
between  these  sentences.) 


i6o 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


66.    Compose  a  sentence  on  each  of  these  subjects 


Health. 

Autumn. 

Content. 

Harv^est. 

Friendship. 

Newspapers. 

Honor. 

The  Ocean. 


Pleasure. 

Poverty. 

Evangeline. 

School-life. 

Sickness. 

Rip  Van  Winkle. 

Steam. 

Railways. 


Public  speaking. 
The  value  of  time. 
The  true  aim  of  life. 
The  use  of  tobacco. 
Bathing  in  the  surf. 
Your  birthplace. 
Your  own  town. 
The  value  of  education. 


Criticise  each  of  your  sentences  rigidly.  Where  you  find  any 
violation  of  the  laws  of  Clearness,  Strength,  Unity,  or  Elegance, 
rewrite  the  defective  sentence  in  improved  form. 


LESSON    XXX. 


VARIETY   OF   EXPRESSION. 


I.   Prose. 


Explanation.  — Though  there  is  one  set  of  words  that  expresses 
a  thought  with  greater  exactness  than  any  other  can,  yet  every 
thought  may  be  expressed  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  Exercise 
in  casting  about  to  find  these  different  modes  of  expression  tends 
to  give  freedom  and  readiness  of  choice  and  to  assist  in  learn- 
ing to  select  the  form  that  most  fittingly  conveys  the  meaning 
intended. 

Kinds  of  Variety.  — There  may  be  variety  of  expression  in  : 
(i)  The  order  of  the  words;  (2)  The  construction  of  the  sen- 
tences; (3)  The  kinds  of  the  sentences ;  (4)  The  form  ;  (5)  The 
individual  words  ;   (6)  The  phraseology. 

How  attained. — This  variety  may  be  made  by:  (i)  Change 
of  Order;   (2)  Construction;   (3)  Synonyms;  (4)  Phraseology. 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  l6l 


CHANGE   OF   ORDER. 

The  parts  of  a  sentence  may  frequently  be  arranged  in  several 
ways  without  altering -the  meaning;  yet,  in  every  case,  there  is  a 
particular  order  that  is  more  appropriate  than  any  other. 

Example.  —  "  The  next  argument  you  will  all  appreciate."  Or  : 
"You  will  all  appreciate  the  next  argument."  Or  :  "You  all  will 
appreciate  the  next  argument." 

EXERCISE  XLVII. 

Change  of  Order. 

Direction. — Vary  the  following  sentences  by  changing  the  order  of  the 
words,  clauses,  or  phrases. 

1.  We  know  how  cheaply  praise  is  won. 

2.  After  their  death  it  was  passed  round  somewhat  freely,  and 
fell  into  my  hands. 

3.  Talent  backs  into  the  shafts  like  a  lamb. 

4.  On  this  issue  they  were  overwhelmingly  defeated. 

5.  When  the  danger  of  a  war  had  passed  by,  he  again  retired 
to  his  home. 

6.  The  traces  of  martyrdom,  it  seems,  are  worn  in  the  other 
world  as  stars  and  ribands  are  worn  in  this. 

7.  In  a  fierce  battle  he  was  struck  by  a  musket  ball  which  broke 
his  ankle-bone. 

8.  I  went  on  my  way  with  a  sad  heart. 

9.  When  the  beavers  build  on  the  bank  of  a  stream,  they  make 
a  dam  across  it. 

10.  One  by  one,  day  after  day,  man  learns  to  coin  his  wishes 
into  facts. 

11.  By  a  long  course  of  study  and  discipline  he  made  himself 
what  he  was. 

12.  He  had  just  raised  the  cup  to  his  lips  when  his  eye  fell 
on  a  poor,  dying  soldier  who  was  looking  longingly  at  the  cool 
drink. 


l62  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

13.  Many  born  poets,  I  am  afraid,  flower  poorly  in  song,  or  not 
at  all,  because  they  have  been  too  often  transplanted. 

14.  All  legislative  powers  granted  by  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  are  vested  in  Congress,  which  consists  of  the  Senate 
and  the  House  of  Representatives. 

15.  I  fear  the  popular  notion  of  success  stands  in  direct 
opposition  in  all  points  to  the  real  and  wholesome  success. 


LESSON    XXXI. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

Substitution.  —  In  the  construction  of  sentences,  great  latitude 
is  afforded  in  the  choice  of  the  form  of  expression.  As  Variety  in 
this  respect  is  one  of  the  beauties  of  good  composition,  pains  must 
be  taken  to  acquire  a  readiness  and  tact  in  substituting  one  con- 
struction for  another. 

How  Secured.  —  Variety  of  construction  may  be  secured  by 
(i)  substituting  one  kind  of  phrase  or  clause  for  another,  (2) 
by  varying  the  predicate,  (3)  by  combining  or  expanding 
sentences,  (4)  by  changing  the  form. 

I.    Adjectival  phrases  or  clauses  may  be  changed  into  :  — 

1.  Adjectives;  as,  "A  man  of  virtue  "  ;  "A  virtuous  man." 
"  He  assumed  a  gravity  that  was  ridiculous  "  ;  "  He  assumed  a 
ridiculous  gravity." 

2.  Infinitives ;  as,  "  He  was  the  first  that  entered  "  ;  "He  was 
the  first  to  enter." 

3.  Adverbial  Clauses;  as,  "A  man  that  does  not  care  for 
music  is  to  be  pitied  "  ;  "A  man,  if  he  does  not  care  for  music, 
is  to  be  pitied."  Or :  "  If  a  man  does  not  care  for  music,  he  is 
to  be  pitied." 

4.  Prepositional  Phrases ;  as,  "  A  man  who  has  little  sense,  is 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1 63 

seldom  aware  of  the  fact  "  ;  "  A  man,  with  little  sense,  is  seldom 
aware  of  the  fact." 

5.  Participles  or  Participial  Phrases;  as,  "Glaciers,  which 
flow  down  mountain  gorges,  obey  the  law  of  rivers  "  ;  "  Glaciers, 
flowing  down  mountain  gorges,  obey  the  law  of  rivers." 

6.  Nouns ;  as,  "  Let  those  who  win  laugh  "  ;  "  Let  the  winners 
laugh." 

2.    Adverbial  phrases  or  clauses  may  be  changed  into  :  — 

1.  Participles,  or  Phrases  containing  Participles  ;  as,  "  She  gave 
it  to  me  when  she  was  dying  "  ;  "  She,  dying,  gave  it  to  me-." 

2.  Imperative  Mood ;  as,  "  If  that  be  granted,  the  rest  is  easily 
proved  "  ;  "  Grant  that,  and  the  rest  is  easily  proved." 

3.  Prepositional  Phrases;  as,  "My  mother,  when  she  does 
praise  me,  grieves  me'"';  "My  mother,  in  praising  me,  grieves 
me." 

4.  Nominative  Absolute ;  as,  "  When  the  cat's  away,  the  mice 
will  play  "  ;  "  The  cat  being  away,  the  mice  will  play." 

5.  Other  Adverbial  Phrases ;  as,  "Many  people  fail  because 
they  neglect  their  own  business "  ;  "  Many  people  fail  through 
neglecting  their  own  business." 

6.  Infinitive  Phrases ;  as,"  We  should  rejoice  on  hearing  of 
the  prosperity  of  others  "  ;  "  We  should  rejoice  to  hear  of  the 
prosperity  of  others." 

7.  Adverbs  ;  as,  "  As  far  as  we  can  judge  by  appearance,  she  is 
wealthy  "  ;  "  She  is  apparently  wealthy." 

3.    Noun  clauses  may  be  changed  into  :  — 

1.  Infinitives  ;  as,  "  We  know  not  what  we  should  do  "  ;  "  We 
know  not  what  to  do." 

2.  Limited  Infijiitives  ;  as,  "  It  was  a  lucky  thing  that  Tom  was 
here  "  ;  "  Tom's  being  here  was  a  lucky  thing." 

3.  Infinitives  with  Subject ;  as,  "  I  believe  that  he  is  honest  "  ; 
"  I  beheve  him  to  be  honest." 

4.  P-epositional  Phrases  ;  as,  "  I  cannot  accept  the  notion  that 
school  life  affected  him  so "  ;  "I  cannot  accept  the  notion  of 
school  life  affecting  him  so." 


164  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  XLVIII. 

Adjective  Phr.'VSes  and  Clauses. 

Direction.  —  Change  the  adjectival  phrases  or  clauses  as  illustrated  in  the 
preceding  Lesson. 

1.  We  were  in  a  sloping  channel  which  had  sloping  banks  on 
each  side. 

2.  A  man  who  has  started  in  life  on  wrong  principles  may  yet 
learn  the  true  lesson. 

3.  Those  who  work  should  be  paid. 

4.  The  trees  that  were  not  protected  were  winter-killed. 

5.  The    nations    that   are    the    best    educated    are    the    most 
prosperous. 

6.  She  placed  the  posy  she  had  gathered  beneath  a  clump  of 
brakes. 

7.  That  happened  at  the  time  when  all  were  seeking  to  save 
themselves. 

8.  A  reward  was  offered  to  any  one  who  might  find  him. 

9.  He  expunged  the  passages  that  had  given  offence. 

10.  He  offered  a  reward  to  any  person  who  should  reveal  the 
author. 

1 1 .  There  is  nothing  which  we   ought  more  to''  encourage  in 
ourselves  and  others  than  cheerfulness. 

12.  A  being  who  has  nothing  to  pardon  in  himself  may  reward 
every  man  according  to  his  works. 

13.  The  treatise  I  mention  has  been  noticed  by  several  authors 
who  have  attained  eminence. 

14.  A  small  river  that  goes  nearly  round  the  town  overflows  in 
the  rains. 

15.  The  windows  are  of  open  wood-work,  which  is  carved  in 
fanciful  figures. 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  165 

Direction.  —  Change  the  adjectives,  infinitives,  adverbial  clauses,  prepo- 
sitional phrases,  participles,  and  appositive  nouns  into  adjectival  phrases  or 
clauses. 

1.  No  ancient  or  modern  hero  ever  had  more  contempt  for  death. 

2.  In  the  proclamation  offering  the  reward,  the  criminal  was 
described. 

3.  The  king,  curious  to  see  the  result,  went  to  the  prison. 

4.  She  redeemed  the  tyranny  of  her  father's  reign. 

5.  A  murmur  of  astonishment  ran  through  the  company. 

6.  The  mirth  of  the  company  rapidly  increased. 

7.  We  breathe  by  means  of  lungs,  placed  in  that  part  of  the 
body  called  the  chest. 

8.  No  man  of  ordinary  intelligence  would  venture  the  statement. 

9.  He  was  the  first  to  make  the  discovery. 

10.  Virtue  extends  to  those  parts  of  our  existence  lying  beyond 
the  grave. 

11.  Our  eternity  is  to  take  its  color  from  the  hours  here 
employed  in  virtue  or  in  vice. 

12.  That  man  has  but  a  small  talent  to  improve. 

13.  Country  Hfe  abounds  in  healthful  pleasures. 

14.  His  stable  doors  are  patched  with  noses  of  foxes  of  the 
Knight's  own  hunting  down. 

15.  They  use  sauces  of  a  hundred  ingredients. 

EXERCISE  XLIX. 

Adverbial  Phrases  and  Clauses. 

Direction. -^Change  the  adverbial  phrases  and  clauses  as  illustrated  in  the 
preceding  Lesson. 

1.  The  majority  of  the  passengers  had  been  made  aware  of  the 
state  of  affairs. 

2.  Passe-partout  made  a  grimace  when  he  gazed  at  his  elegant 
but  thin  slippers. 

3.  The  animal  had  been  purchased  for  a  fighting  elephant,  not 
for  carrying  purposes. 


l66  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

4.  Elephants  in  India  are  dear,  for  they  are  becoming  some- 
what scarce. 

5.  As  the  night  wore  on,  the  accounts  grew  much  worse. 

6.  To  this  place  many  of  the  rioters  had  straggled,  because  it 
afforded  the  means  of  a  barricade. 

7.  As  they  had  been  warned  by  each  other  and  by  the  scout, 
they  knew  something  about  the  matter. 

8.  Nothing  is  more  amiable  than  true  modesty. 

9.  Discretion  does  not  always  show  itself  in  words. 

10.  A  man  should  conduct  himself  so  that  he  will  be  respected. 

11.  Nature  delights  in  the  most  plain  and  simple  diet. 

12.  This  observation,  in  my  opinion,  has  no  foundation  in  nature. 

13.  The  Son  of  Man  hath  no  place  where  he  may  lay  his  head. 

14.  After  I  had  dined,  I  returned  home. 

15.  When  I  was  young,  I  thought  as  you  do. 

Direction.  —  Change  the  participial,  prepositional,  infinitive,  and  absolute 
phrases,  the  imperatives,  and  adverbs,  into  adverbial  phrases  or  clauses. 

1 .  He  turned  his  head  to  look  behind  him. 

2.  She  was  a  beautiful  girl  with  flowing  flaxen  hair. 

3.  The  spot  was  immediately  erased. 

4.  Admit  that  point,  and  all  the  rest  follows. 

5.  Uttering  these  words,  he  left  the  room. 

6.  Having  made  this  remark,  he  soon  began  his  task. 

7.  This  preface  being  made,  they  addressed  themselves  to  the 
work. 

8.  He  calmly  contemplates  the  approach  of  death. 

9.  The  evening  was  spent  conversing  with  friends; 

10.  The  object  of  the    book    being  discovered,  both  parties 
were  indignant  at  the  writer. 

1 1.  His  mind  was  busy  planning  schemes  of  improvement. 

12.  Taylor  being  released  determined  to  remain  in  Wales. 

13.  I  scrambled  up  with  pain  and  shame. 

14.  He  did  not  care  to  live  with  his  friend  dead. 

15.  Grant  the  supposition,  and  the  conclusion  must  follow. 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1 6/ 

EXERCISE  L. 

Noun  Clauses. 
Direction.  —  Change  the  noun  clauses  as  indicated  in  the  preceding  Lesson 

1.  I  believe  you  are  a  friend  of  the  defendant. 

2.  I  hope  I  shall  have  the  pleasure  of  judging. 

3.  He  determined  that  he  would  sell  his  entire  stock. 

4.  He  has  long  had  a  notion  that  he  would  retire  from  business. 

5.  He  found  that  the  boys  were  disobedient. 

6.  He  expected  that  he  would  meet  him  at  a  dinner. 

7.  The   king  commanded  that  the  leaders  should    be  put  to 
death. 

8.  He  asked  that  they  should  be  his  friends  also. 

9.  They  found  that  the  place  was  inhabited  by  savages. 

10.  It  seemed  to  him  that  he  had  become  a  new  boy  again. 

11.  He  denied  that  he  had  used  that  expression. 

12.  They  did  not  think  they  were  doing  anything  wrong. 

1 3.  It  is  not  always  enough  that  we  should  mean  right. 

14.  We  are  not  certain  that  mind  and  matter  are  necessarily 
connected. 

15.  They  cannot  tell  where  they  ought  to  sell  their  produce. 

Direction. — Change   the  infinitives  to   noun  clauses,  to    participles,  to 
nouns,  or  to  other  infinitives. 

1.  He  begged  to  know  if  he  could  do  anything. 

2.  They  were  anxious  to  hear  what  was  to  follow. 

3.  My  friend  proposed  to  walk  through  the  park. 

4.  He  hurried  out  to  meet  his  friend. 

5.  I  shall  be  permitted  to  die  for  my  country. 

6.  He  did  his  utmost  to  be  here. 

7.  His  being  punished  was  an  act  of  justice. 

8.  It  was  impossible  for  him  to  come. 

9.  The  object  of  educating  children  is  to  develop  the  mind. 
TO.    I  was  much  surprised  to  hear  my  old  friend  tell  him  not  to 

disturb  the  congregation. 


l68  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

11.  I  believe  him  to  be  a  thorough  scholar. 

12.  The  chiefs  being  absent  was  unfortunate. 

13.  To  be  united  is  to  be  strong. 

14.  He  is  not  a  man  to  forget  his  promise. 

15.  He  struck  with  such  violence  as  to  injure  his  skull. 


LESSON    XXXII. 

THE   PREDICATE. 

Sentences  may  be  varied  by  changing  the  predicate. 

1.  The  verb  be  and  an  adjective  may  be  substituted  for  the 
predicate  verb ;  as,  "That  suffices  forme";  "That  is  sufficient 
for  me." 

2.  Sometimes  the  verb  be  and  an  attributive  noun  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  predicate  verb ;  as,  "  He  invents  "  ;  "  He  is  an 
inventor." 

3.  The  verb  have  and  an  object  may  be  substituted. for  the 
predicate  verb ;  as,  "  He  is  not  discreet "  ;  "  He  has  no  discre- 
tion." 

4.  The  voice  of  the  verb  may  be  changed  ;  as,  "  They  searched 
for  you  "  ;  "  You  were  searched  for." 

5.  The  chief  part  of  the  predicate  may  be  changed  to  an  adjec- 
tive ;  as,  "  Her  disease  cannot  be  cured  "  ;  "  Her  disease  is  incur- 
able." 

6.  Instead  of  an  affirmative  statement  we  may  use  a  denial  of 
the  opposite  ;  as,  "  He  is  learned  "  ;  "  He  is  not  uneducated." 

SENTENCES. 

The  construction  may  be  varied  by  combining,  contracting,  and 
expanding  sentences. 

Simple  Sentences.  —  i.  Two  or  more  simple  sentences  may 
be  combined  by  changing  one  of  them  into  :  — 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION,  I69 

a.  An  Appositive  Phrase;  as,  "The  keeper  was  a  man  of 
great  strength.  He  killed  a  lion  "  ;  "The  keeper,  a  man  of  great 
strength,  killed  a  lion." 

b.  A  Participial  Phrase ;  as,  "The  trees  are  growing  along 
the  riven  They  are  very  large  "  ;  "The  trees,  growing  along  the 
river,  are  very  large." 

c.  An  Infinitive  Phrase ;  as,  "  I  have  come.  I  shall  tell 
you  "  ;  "I  have  come  to  tell  you." 

d.  A  Prepositional  Phrase;  as,  "There  is  a  path  through 
the  woods.  It  is  shady  " ;  "  The  path  through  the  woods  is 
shady." 

2.  Two  or  more  simple  sentences  may  be  combined  into  a 
complex  sentence  by  making  one  the  independent  clause,  and 
turning  the  others  into  dependent  clauses  :  — 

a.  Into  an  Adjectival  Clause;  as,  "The  tree  is  dead.  The 
tree  was  struck  by  lightning";  "The  tree  which  was  struck  by 
lightning  is  dead." 

d.  Into  zx\.  Adverbial  Clause;  as,  "I  have  come.  I  shall  tell 
you  "  ;  "I  have  come  that  I  may  tell  you." 

c.  Into  a  Noun  Clause ;  as,  "  Plato's  enemies  had  spoken  ill 
of  him.  He  was  told  this  "  ;  •'  Plato  was  told  that  his  enemies 
had  spoken  ill  of  him." 

3.  Two  or  more  simple  sentences  may  be  combined  into  one 
simple  sentence  with  a  compound  subject  or  a  compound 
predicate  ;  as,  "  Life  is  work.  Life  is  warfare  "  ;  "  Life  is  work 
and  warfare."  "The  men  are  diligent.  The  boys  are  diligent"  ; 
"The  men  and  the  boys  are  diligent."  "  He  is  a  wise  man.  He 
is  a  good  man.  He  is  a  patriotic  man  "  ;  "  He  is  a  wise,  good, 
and  patriotic  man." 

4.  Simple  sentences  may  be  expanded  into  compound  or  into 
complex  sentences. 

Example.  —  "On  approaching  the  house,  we  saw  the  enemy 
retreating " ;  "  As  we  approached  the  house  we  saw  the  en- 
emy retreating."  Or:  "We  approached  the  house  and  saw  the 
enemy  retreating." 


I/O  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Compound  and  complex  sentences  may  be  contracted  into 
simple  sentences. 

Example.  —  "  He  always  stood  up  for  what  was  right  "  ;  "  He 
always  stood  up  for  the  right." 

Compound  sentences  may  be  changed  into  complex,  and 
complex  into  compound. 

Example.  —  "I  was  too  far  from  home  to  think  of  returning, 
and  so  I  determined  to  go  forward  "  ;  "As  I  was  too  far  from, 
home  to  think  of  returning,  I  determined  to  go  forward." 

Direct  Discourse  for  Indirect. 

Direct  discourse  introduces  the  speakers  themselves,  while 
indirect  merely  tells  what  they  said  or  did.  It  is  often  convenient 
or  desirable  to  change  the  one  into  the  other.  This  is  done  chiefly 
by  changing  the  first  and  second  person  to  the  third,  and  the 
present  tense  to  the  past. 

Exainple.  —  Direct:  "Paint  me  as  I  am,"  said  Cromwell, 
"  with  all  my  scars,  wrinkles,  and  warts,  or  I  will  not  pay  you  a 
shilling." 

Indirect :  "  Cromwell  said  that  the  painter  was  to  paint  him  as 
he  was,  with  all  his  scars,  warts,  and  wrinkles,  or  he  would  not  pay 
him  a  shilling  for  the  picture." 

EXERCISE   LI. 

The  Predicate. 

Direction. —  Vary  the  form  of  these  sentences  by  changing  the  predicate 
as  indicated  in  the  preceding  Lesson. 

1.  They  earned  money. 

2.  She  had  no  distrust. 

3.  I  had  no  alternative. 

4.  Shelley  desired  the  realization  of  the  ideal. 

5.  Almost  all  young  persons  are  fond  of  the  sea. 

6.  My  opinion  differs  from  yours. 

7.  This  statement  applies  only  to  certain  districts. 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  I/I 

8.  He  is  foolish. 

g.  Your  words  showed  your  thoughts. 

10.  He  was  friendly  to  us. 

11.  Money  will  supply  your  wants. 

12.  Hope  buoys  up  the  sinking  soul. 

13.  Our  interference  did  not  produce  much  good. 

14.  They  have  none  of  my  sympathy. 

15.  She  does  not  love  him, 

16.  You  are  not  kind. 

1 7.  He  is  not  polite. 

18.  He  is  not  thoughtful. 

19.  The  mystery  was  soon  solved. 

20.  The  obstacles  cannot  be  surmounted. 

21.  He  is  worthy  of  contempt. 

22.  His  speaking  could  not  be  heard. 

23.  It  is  expected. 

24.  I  am  mindful  of  you. 

25.  What  the  man  earned  during  the  day  was  squandered  in 
the  evening. 

EXERCISE  LII. 

Simple  Sentences. 

Direction.  —  Combine  the  simple  sentences  into  compound  or  complex, 
as  illustrated  in  the  preceding  Lesson. 

1.  Lying  is  a  great  sin  against  God.  He  gave  us  a  tongue  to 
speak  the  truth,  not  falsehood. 

2.  Their  work  was  not  yet  finished.  The  Iroquois  came  again 
upon  them. 

3.  They  bore  her  along  the  crowded  path.  It  was  covered 
with  snow.     She  was  as  pure  as  the  snow. 

4.  The  largest  telescope  shows  many  stars.  It  shows  them  in 
every  part  of  the  heavens.  We  cannot  count  them.  They  are 
many  millions. 

5.  These  are  the  mansions  of  good  men  after  death.  They  are 
distributed  among  these  islands  according  to  the  degrees  of  virtue 


172  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

in  which  they  excelled.  These  islands  abound  with  pleasures  of 
different  degrees.  These  pleasures  are  suitable  to  the  perfections 
of  those  who  settled  in  them. 

6.  Thales  looked  upon  the  stars.  He  fell  towards  the  water. 
He  might  have  looked  into  the  water.  He  might  have  seen  stars 
in  the  water.  He  looked  up  to  the  stars.  He  saw  no  water 
there. 

7.  He  was  a  comely  personage.  He  was  a  little  above  the 
ordinary  stature.  His  countenance  was  reverend.  He  was  little 
like  a  churchman.  His  face  was  honest.  It  v/as  not  strange.  It 
was  not  dark.     It  was  not  wifining. 

8.  Csesar  was  tolerably  learned.  He  was  learned  chiefly  in 
civil  matters.  He  was  well  versed  in  history.  He  understood 
the  weight  of  words.  He  attributed  much  to  his  good  stars.  He 
was  fond  of  astronomy. 

9.  Antonio  was  one  of  the  kindest  men  that  ever  lived.  He 
was  one  of  the  best  conditioned.  He  had  the  most  unwearied 
spirit  in  doing  courtesies.  In  him  the  ancient  Roman  honor 
appeared.     It  appeared  more  than  in  any  other  man  in  Italy. 

10.  Nature  influenced  Wordsworth.  The  freedom  of  life 
among  the  Cumberland  hills  influenced  him.  So  did  the  sim- 
plicity of  life  there.  This  freedom  and  simpUcity  affected  his 
mind.     They  affected  his  character. 

EXERCISE  LIII. 

Simple  Sentences. 

Direction.  —  Expand  the  simple  sentences  into  compound  or  complex 
sentences. 

1.  There  he  stood,  pointing  me  out  with  his  dusky  finger  to 
the  mob. 

2.  I  could  see  the  road  lying  dim  and  grey  below  us. 

3.  Five  minutes  later  a  tall  figure  wrapped  in  an  overcoat  rose 
from  the  heather. 

4.  The  lowering  sky  had  brought  the  promised  storm. 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1/3 

5.  Frost-bitten  people  should  not  run  to  the  stove. 

6.  I  never  pass  this  point  without  shaking  some  forty  years  off 
niy  shoulders. 

7.  There  is  something  brave  in  your  spirit  as  well  as  penetrat- 
ing in  your  eye. 

8.  Curiosity  getting  the  better  of  reserve,  she  pulled  open  the 
heavy  grate. 

9.  Without  his  help  you  would  not  have  succeeded. 

10.  A  surprised  expression  crossed  his  face. 

11.  They  now  left  the  main  road,  striking  into  a  green  by-path. 

12.  There  is  not  one  in  my  circle  so  handsome  and  so  strong. 

13.  She  observed  two  ladies  slowly  pacing  the  piazza. 

14.  The  sudden   change  from   heat   to    cold  experienced   on 
going  into  water  is  apt  to  be  very  hurtful. 

15.  She    proudly   drew    herself   up,   exulting    in   the    bright 
prospects  of  the  future. 

Direction.  —  Contract  the  compound  and  complex  sentences  into  simple 
sentences. 

1.  My  sight  cleared  for  a  moment,  and  I  managed  to  look  up. 

2.  He  forgot  the  loss  of  his  hat,  and  hurried  to  meet  his  friend. 

3.  I  know  not  how  thy  palate  may  relish  the  composition. 

4.  The   fine   lady  or  fine   gentleman   who   shows   me,   shows 
bones. 

5.  She  came  so  heedlessly  that  she  stumbled. 

6.  Never  leave  a  street-car  while  it  is  in  motion. 

7.  Men  uniformly  overrate   riches    and    underrate   their   own 
strength. 

8.  The  fact  is,  that  a  thief  is  a  very  dainty  gentleman. 

9.  My  ambition  is  to  give  them  a  beau-ideal  of  welcome  when 
they  arrive. 

10.  He  broke  with  his  family,  and  has  for  some  years  led  an 
unsettled  hfe. 

11.  No  one  who  loves  and  studies  nature  can  feel  alone  in  the 
world. 


174  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

12.  The  examinations  are  just  coming  on,  and  it  would  not  be 
advisable  to  break  up  school. 

13.  That  farm  is  valuable  because  it  is  near  the  town. 

14.  I  stretched  out  my  neck,  and  caught  with  my  teeth  at  the 
stoutest  root  within  my  reach. 

15.  If  you  are  heated  with  either  play  or  work,  take  care  not 
to  let  the  body  cool  too  quickly. 

Direction. — Change  the   complex   sentences   into   compound,  and   the 
compound  into  complex. 

1.  The  blows  were  strong  enough,  but  they  came  from  a  man 
who  struck  at  random. 

2.  He  remained  in  silent  admiration,  and  we  all  joined  him  in 
his  worship. 

3.  Three  seasons  have  elapsed  since  the  last  of  these  laws  were 
passed. 

4.  If  poaching  can  be   extirpated  by  intensity  ot  punishment, 
why  may  not  all  other  crimes? 

5.  I  detected  the  substitute  before  I  was  old  enough  to  reason 
whether  it  were  artificial  or  not. 

6.  He  left  the  temple  a  devotee,  and  returned  a  rationalist. 

7.  If  this  dish  have  time  to  cool,  it  is  the  most  tasteless  of  all 
meats. 

8.  He  burnt  his  fingers,  and  to  cool  them  applied  them  to  his 
mouth. 

9.  The  small  stock  of  provisions  which  we  took  with  us  was 
soon  exhausted. 

10.  What  I  want  is  that  you  should  write  to  your  sisters,  and 
tell  them  of  the  fortune  that  has  accrued  to  them. 

11.  She  offered  to  relieve  him  of  the  task,  which  he  resigned  to 
her  instantly. 

12.  He  knew  how  the  desire  to  become  a  dashing  equestrienne 
had  taken  possession  of  her  soul. 

13.  He  was  a  close  observer,  and  from  his  stand-point  he  was 
able  to  discern  signs  of  character. 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1/5 

14.  When  the  Hght  infantry  joined  the  main  body,  the  army 
retreated  into  the  town. 

15.  His  eyes  closed  with  the  torpor  of  approaching  death,  and 
those  around  sustained  his  fainting  form. 


EXERCISE  LIV. 

Direction.  —  In  the  following  sentences  change  the  direct  form  to  the 
indirect,  and  the  indirect  to  the  direct. 

1.  "I  did  not  rise,"  said  he,  "with  the  expectation  that  I 
should  convince  the  honorable  gentlemen  that  they  are  wrong  and 
that  I  am  right." 

2.  Wallace  told  the  priests  to  remain  with  him,  as  he  could  not 
protect  them  from  his  soldiers  when  out  of  his  presence. 

3.  The  crabbed  old  schoolmaster  used  to  ask,  when  they 
brought  him  a  new  pupil,  "  But  are  you  sure  he  is  not  a  dunce?  " 

4.  "  I  intended  that  work  to  be  my  best,"  said  Thackeray, 
"  but  I  have  failed.     Nobody  reads  it." 

5.  "My  conscience,"  said  he,  "tells  me  that  I  have  labored 
honestly  to  destroy  that  which  is  evil  and  build  up  that  which  is 
good." 

6.  Dr.  Johnson  is  reported  to  have  said  :  "  If  a  boy  says  he 
looked  out  of  this  window  when  he  looked  out  of  that  one,  whip 
him." 

7.  He  said  that  he  had  often  played  under  these  trees  when  a 
boy,  and  that  he  felt  a  degree  of  filial  reverence  for  them. 

8.  Dean  Swift  averred  that  he  never  knew  a  man  come  to 
eminence  who  lay  in  bed  of  a  morning. 

9.  "The  public,"  Goldsmith  used  to  say,  "will  never  do  me 
justice  ;  whenever  I  write  anything,  they  make  a  point  to  know 
nothing  about  it." 

10.  She  said  that  she  was  glad  I  had  come,  and  that  she  had 
been  running  down  the  lane  looking  for  me. 


1/6  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XXXIII. 

SYNONYMS. 

Variety  of  expression  may  generally  be  secured  by  putting  in 
the  place  of  the  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  adverbs  some  of 
their  synonyms.  As  no  two  words  convey  exactly  the  same  sense, 
there  is  always  one  that  is  the  most  fitting  to  be  used,  while  there 
may  be  several  that  are  admissible. 

Example.  —  Many  good,  brave,  and  moderate  men,  who  dis- 
liked his  former  conduct,  and  who  entertained  doubts  touching 
his  present  sincerity,  espoused  his  cause  unwillingly  and  with  many 
painful  misgivings,  because,  though  they  dreaded  his  tyranny  much, 
they  dreaded  democratic  violence  more. 

With  Synonyms.  —  A  large  number  of  noble,  fearless,  and 
reasonable  persons,  who  disapproved  of  his  previous  course  of 
action,  and  who  had  their  suspicions  concerning  his  present  hon- 
esty of  purpose,  supported  his  interests  reluctantly  and  with  much 
distressing  hesitation,  because,  though  they  feared  his  iron  rule 
much,  they  feared  popular  outrage  more. 

Phraseology. 

Variety  of  expression  may  be  secured  by  recasting  a  sentence, 
paragraph,  or  whole  sketch  in  entirely  different  phraseology.  This 
may  be  done  either  by  way  of  paraphrase  or  condensation. 

Example  of  Sentence.  —  She  died.  She  passed  away.  She  was 
no  more.  She  fell  asleep  forever.  She  slept  the  sleep  that  knows 
no  waking.  Her  dissolution  took  place.  She  breathed  her  last. 
She  departed  this  life.  She  sank  into  the  grave.  She  closed 
her  eyes  forever.  She  terminated  her  earthly  existence.  She 
dropped  off.  Her  demise  occurred.  After  a  long  and  painful 
illness,  borne  with  true  Christian  resignation,  she  passed  away  at 
the  early  age  of  twenty-six,  beloved  and  lamented  by  all  who  knew 
her. 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  177 

The  Paraphrase.  —  Reproducing  thought  with  greater  fulness 
of  detail  or  illustration  is  usually  termed  Paraphrasing. 
In  this  exercise  — 

1.  Do  not  merely  substitute  one  word  for  another,  or  even  one 
sentence  for  another. 

2.  Study  the  passage  to  be  transposed  till  you  have  thoroughly 
mastered  it  in  detail  and  as  a  whole. 

3.  If  it  is  too  long  to  be  easily  retained  in  the  memory,  make  a 
brief  list  of  the  leading  heads  or  parts,  and  arrange  them  in  the 
order  in  which  you  intend  to  write  them  out. 

4.  Then  lay  aside  the  passage  and  express  freely  in  your  own 
language  the  several  thoughts,  facts,  or  statements  it  contains. 

5 .  Criticise  your  work,  — 

a.  See  that  none  of  the  ideas  have  been  omitted  or  misunder- 
stood. 

b.  Be  sure  that  all  your  words  and  expressions  are  new. 

c.  See  that  your  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs  are  correct. 
Example  of  Sketch.  —  Damon  and  Pythias  were  intimate  friends. 

Damon  being  condemned  to  death  by  the  tyrant  Dionysius, 
asked  liberty  to  go  home  for  the  purpose  of  setting  his  affairs 
in  order ;  and  his  friend  offered  to  be  his  surety,  and  to  submit 
to  death  if  Damon  should  not  return.  Every  one  thought  he 
knew  what  the  end  of  the  affair  would  be,  and  began  to  condemn 
Pythias  for  so  rash  an  act ;  but  he,  confident  of  the  integrity  of 
his  friend,  awaited  the  appointed  time  with  cheerfulness.  Damon, 
strict  to  his  engagement,  returned  at  the  time  fixed.  Dionysius 
so  much  admired  their  mutual  fidelity  that  he  pardoned  Damon, 
and  asked  to  be  admitted  into  the  friendship  of  two  such  worthy 
men. 

Recast.  —  Damon  and  Pythias  were  very  dear  friends,  and 
thought  a  good  deal  of  each  other,  as  the  following  instance 
shows.  Damon,  having  in  some  Avay  or  other  transgressed  the  law 
of  Dionysius,  was  put  into  prison  and  condemned  to  death.  Being 
very  desirous  of  going  home  to  bid  his  friends  good  by,  and  to 
put  his  affairs  in  order  before  his  death,  he  begged  Dionysius  to 


178  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

allow  him  to  go,  promising  to  return  on  the  day  of  execution. 
But  Dionysius,  fearing  that  it  was  a  plot  to  get  Damon  out  of  his 
hands,  promised  to  let  him  go  on  condition  that  he  would  get 
some  one  to  act  as  surety  for  him.  With  this  Damon's  heart 
sank,  for  he  never  thought  that  any  one  would  be  willing  to  risk 
his  life  for  him.  But  Damon  had  at  least  one  true  friend,  who 
did  not  desert  him  in  this  time  of  trouble.  This  friend  was 
Pythias.  He  freely  offered  to  go  security,  saying  that,  if  Damon 
did  not  return,  he  would  cheerfully  die  in  his  stead.  So  Damon 
went  to  his  home,  and  Pythias  went  to  prison.  As  the  day  of 
execution  drew  near,  the  people  began  to  ridicule  Pythias  for 
running  such  a  risk  ;  they  said  they  knew  very  well  that  Damon 
would  not  return.  However,  Pythias  said  that  he  could  trust  his 
friend's  integrity ;  and  he  was  not  deceived ;  for,  true  to  his 
promise,  on  the  day  appointed,  Damon  did  return.  This  so 
pleased  the  king  that  he  freely  forgave  Damon,  and  asked  to  be 
a  sharer  in  their  friendship,  a  friendship  which  made  them  stand 
by  each  other  in  such  a  time  of  trial. 

Condensation,  on  the  other  hand,  consists  in  expressing  thought 
with  greater  brevity. 

Exainple.  —  Though  a  man  has  all  other  perfections  and  wants 
discretion,  he  will  be  of  no  great  consequence  in  the  world ;  but 
if  he  has  this  single  talent  in  perfection,  and  but  a  common  share 
of  others,  he  may  do  what  he  pleases  in  his  particular  station  of  life. 

Condensed.  —  In  our  intercourse  with  the  world,  discretion  is 
of  more  value  than  any  other  quality  of  mind. 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1/9 

EXERCISE  LV. 

Direction.  —  In  the  following  sentences,  change  the  wording  by  putting 
in  place  of  the  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  adverbs,  one  of  their  synonyms 
that  will  express  as  nearly  as  may  be  the  same  meaning. 

1 .  Indolence  is  the  cause  of  many  evils. 

2.  Wealth  which  is  desired  by  all  is  accompanied  by  many 
troubles. 

3.  In  establishing  his  government  he  had  to  feel  his  way,  to 
sound  men's  dispositions,  and  to  conciliate  different  interests. 

4.  The  Protectorate,  with  all  its  glories,  was  not  the  conception 
of  a  lowly  intellect,  but  the  revolutionary  energy  of  a  mighty  nation 
concentrated  in  a  single  chief. 

5.  Attempts  have  often  been  made,  and  very  recently  have  been 
renewed  with  much  affirmation  of  success,  to  prove  that  such  low 
forms  of  life  may  originate  spontaneously  from  their  materials  in 
the  water. 

6.  Great  gates  of  brass,  richly  and  delicately  wrought,  turn 
heavily  upon  their  hinges,  as  if  proudly  reluctant  to  admit  the 
feet  of  common  mortals  into  this  most  gorgeous  of  sepulchres. 

7.  The  more,  however,  James  pressed  for  the  consummation 
of  his  projects,  the  more  Spain  held  back  ;  but  so  bent  was  the 
king  on  its  realization  that,  after  fruitless  negotiations,  the  prince 
quitted  England  in  disguise,  and  appeared  with  Buckingham  at 
Madrid,  to  claim  his  promised  bride. 

8.  Human  fat  is  fuel  laid  away  for  use.  It  constitutes  a  hoard 
of  combustible  material  upon  which  the  owner  may  draw  when- 
ever his  ordinary  supplies  are  intercepted. 

9.  I  thought  ten  thousand  swords  must  have  leaped  from  their 
scabbards  to  avenge  even  a  look  that  threatened  her  with  insult. 
But  the  ag»  of  chivalry  is  gone.  That  of  sophisters,  economists, 
and  calculators  has  succeeded  ;  and  the  glory  of  Europe  is  extin- 
guished forever. 

10.  It  may  well  be  doubted  if  any  one  of  the  great  poets  who 
have  arisen  during  the  last  half  century  has  so  closely  touched  the 
popular  heart  as  Longfellow  has. 


l80  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  LVI. 

Transposing. 

Direction.  —  Express  in  different  phraseology  as  illustrated  in  the  preced- 
ing Lesson. 

1.  He  gives  his  parents  no  anxiety. 

2.  Truth,  crushed  to  death,  shall  rise  again. 

3.  Cradles  rock  us  nearer  to  the  tomb. 

4.  He  hides  his  own  offences,  and  strips  others'  bare. 

5.  The  gale  had  sighed  itself  to  rest. 

6.  When  faith  is  lost,  when  honor  dies,  the  man  is  dead. 

7.  He  who  would  search  for  pearls  must  dive  below. 
''^    8.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

9.   They  never  pardon  who  have  done  the  wrong. 

10.  That  life  is  long  which  answers  life's  great  end. 

11.  Mammon  wins  his  way  where  seraphs  might  despair. 

12.  Where  your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be  also. 

13.  It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive. 

14.  They  all  with  one  consent  began  to  make  excuse. 

15.  It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blows  nobody  good. 

16.  How  very  much  happier  we  should  all  be  if  people  attended 
to  their  own  business,  and  let  their  neighbors  attend  to  theirs. 

1 7.  The  Court  of  Elizabeth  was  as  immoral  as  that  of  her  suc- 
cessor, but  its  immorality  was  shrouded  by  a  veil  of  grace  and 
chivalry. 

18.  He  was  a  most  severe  judge  of  himself  as  well  as  of  others. 

19.  There  is  scarcely  a  man  living  who  is  not  actuated  by 
ambition. 

EXERCISE  LVII. 

Transposing.  , 

Direction.  —  Render  the  following  in  different  phraseology  as  illustrated 
in  the  Lesson. 

I.  Whatever  I  have  tried  to  do  in  life,  I  have  tried  with  all  my 
heart  to   do  well ;    whatever  I  have  devoted  myself  to,  I  have 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  l8l 

devoted  myself  to  completely.      In  great  aims  and  in  small,  I 
have  always  been  thoroughly  in  earnest. 

2.  It  was  a  mystery  to  many  people  why  Governor  Briggs,  of 
Massachusetts,  wore  a  cravat  but  no  collar.  Some  people  thought 
it  was  an  absurd  eccentricity.  This  was  the  secret :  Many  years 
before  he  was  talking  with  an  inebriate  and  telling  him  that  his 
habit  was  unnecessary,  and  the  inebriate  retorted  upon  him  and 
said,  "  We  do  a  great  many  things  that  are  not  necessary.  It  is 
not  necessary  for  you  to  wear  that  collar.  "Well,"  said  the  gov- 
ernor, "  I  will  never  wear  a  collar  again  if  you  won't  drink." 
"Agreed,"  said  the  inebriate.  Governor  Briggs  never  wore  a 
collar.  They  both  kept  their  bargain  for  twenty  years.  They 
kept  it  to  the  death.  That  is  the  reason  Governor  Briggs  did 
not  wear  a  collar. 

3.  When  Syracuse  was  taken,  Archimedes  was  describing  math- 
ematical figures  upon  the  earth,  and  when  one  of  the  enemy  came 
upon  him,  and  asked  his  name,  he  was  so  engrossed  with  the 
desire  of  preserving  the  figures  entire,  that  he  answered  only  by 
an  earnest  request  to  the  soldier  to  keep  off,  and  not  break  in 
upon  his  circle.  The  soldier,  thinking  himself  scorned,  ran  Archi- 
medes through  the  body,  and  the  purple  stream  of  blood  soon 
obscured  all  traces  of  the  problem  on  which  he  had  been  so 
intent.  Thus  fell  this  illustrious  man  by  the  mere  neglect  to  tell 
his  name,  for  the  general,  Marcellus,  had  given  orders  to  respect 
the  life  and  person  of  the  philosopher. 

4.  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel,  whose  melancholy  shipwreck  on  the 
rocks  of  Scilly  is  well  known,  was,  when  a  boy,  on  board  a  ship 
commanded  by  Sir  John  Narborough,  who,  during  an  action,  ex- 
pressed a  very  earnest  wish  to  have  some  orders  of  consequence 
conveyed  to  a  ship  at  a  considerable  distance.  Shovel,  hearing 
this,  immediately  undertook  to  convey  it ;  and  this  he  actually 
performed,  swimming  through  the  enemy's  line  of  fire  with  the 
despatches  in  his  mouth. 


l82  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  LVIII. 

Expansion. 

Direction.  —  Expand  each  of  the  following  into  a  paragraph  of  two  ot 
more  sentences. 

1.  Columbus  discovered  America. 

2.  Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit. 

3.  Wisdom  is  justified  of  her  children. 

4.  It  is  glorious  to  die  for  one's  country. 

5.  War  is  a  great  evil. 

6.  There  is  strength  in  unity. 

7.  The  amiable  gain  many  friends. 

8.  Party  is  the  madness  of  many  for  the  gain  of  a  few. 

9.  Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time. 

10.  There's  nothing  either  good  or  bad,  but  thinking  makes  it  so, 

1 1 .  We  know  what  we  are,  but  know  not  what  we  may  be. 

12.  There  is  a  special  providence  in  the  fall  of  a  sparrow. 

13.  Every  one  can  master  a  grief  but  he  that  has  it. 

14.  The  great  clock  at  Strasburg  is  a  wonderful  piece  of  mech- 
anism. 

Direction.  —  Condense  the  substance  of  the  following  paragraphs  into 
one  or  two  sentences. 

1.  I  was  not,  like  His  Grace  of  Bedford,  swaddled  and  rocked 
and  dandled  into  a  legislator.  ^^  Nitor  in  adversum  "  is  the  motto 
for  a  man  like  me.  I  possessed  not  one  of  the  qualities,  nor  cul- 
tivated one  of  the  arts,  that  recommend  men  to  the  favor  and 
protection  of  the  great.     I  was  not  made  for  a  minion  or  a  tool. 

2.  Malevolence  to  the  clergy  is  seldom  at  a  great  distance  from 
irreverence  of  religion,  and  Dryden  affords  no  exception  to  this 
observance.  His  writings  exhibit  many  passages,  which,  with  all 
the  allowance  that  can  be  made  for  character  and  occasions,  are 
such  as  piety  would  not  have  admitted,  and  such  as  may  vitiate 
light  and  unprincipled  minds.  But  there  is  no  reason  for  suppos- 
ing that  he  disbelieved  the  religion  which  he  disobeyed.     He  for- 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1 83 

got  his  duty  rather  than  disowned  it.  His  tendency  to  profaneness 
is  the  effect  of  levity,  neghgence,  and  hght  conversation,  with  a 
desire  of  accommodating  himself  to  the  conception  of  his  times 
by  venturing  to  be  wicked  as  far  as  he  durst. 

3.  "  I'll  tell  you  a  story,  -gentlemen,  which  is  as  true  as  that  this 
pipe  is  made  of  clay.  When  I  was  delivered  of  my  first  book,  I 
owed  my  tailor  for  a  suit  of  clothes  ;  but  that  is  nothing  new,  you 
know,  and  may  be  any  man's  case  as  well  as  mine.  Well,  owing 
him  for  a  suit  of  clothes,  and  hearing  that  my  book  took  very  well, 
he  sent  for  his  money  and  insisted  on  being  paid  immediately. 
Though  I  was  at  the  time  rich  in  fame,  for  my  book  ran  like  wild- 
fire, yet  I  was  very  short  in  money,  and  being  unable  to  satisfy 
his  demand,  prudently  resolved  to  keep  my  chamber,  preferring  a 
prison  of  my  own  choosing  at  home  to  one  of  my  tailor's  choosing 
abroad.  In  vain  the  bailiffs  used  all  their  arts  to  decoy  me  from 
my  citadel ;  in  vain  they  sent  to  let  me  know  that  a  gentleman 
wanted  to  speak  to  me  at  the  next  tavern  ;  in  vain  they  came  with 
an  urgent  message  from  my  aunt  in  the  country ;  in  vain  was  I 
told  that  a  particular  friend  was  at  the  point  of  death  and  desired 
to  take  his  last  farewell.  I  was  deaf,  insensible,  rock,  adamant ; 
the  bailiffs  could  make  no  impression  on  my  hard  heart,  for  I 
effectually  kept  my  liberty  by  never  stirring  out  of  my  room." 

4.  Write  a  paragraph  on  "  Our  Sight,"  taking  the  following  as 
principal  and  subordinate  subjects  :  A  general  statement  about 
"Our  Sight"  —  The  pleasure  it  affords  —  Contrast  these  pleasures 
with  those  received  through  "the  sense  of  feeling" — The  ideas 
it  furnishes  the  imagination,  and  their  nature  —  How  much  we 
should  value  "Sight." 

5.  Write  a  paragraph  describing  "A  Meadow  suitable  for  a 
Tournament."  Take  the  following  as  heads  :  An  introductory 
sentence  —  The  location  —  Surface  —  Kind  of  enclosure  —  The 
size  —  The  form — The  entrance  and  how  guarded. 

6.  Write  a  paragraph  on  "Successive  Steps  to  Prohibition." 
Heads:  No  sale  to  minors — No  sale  to  drunkards  —  No  sale  of 
adulterated  liquors  —  High  license  —  Prohibition. 


l84  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XXXIV. 

VARIETY   OF   EXPRESSION. 
II.    Poetry  to  Prose. 

Two  Forms.  —  All  thought  may  be  expressed  either  in  the 
form  of  poetry  or  in  that  of  prose.  Sometimes  these  two  forms 
approach  very  closely,  at  others  they  stand  very  widely  apart,  but 
they  never  coincide.  Moreover,  the  effect  produced  on  the  mind 
by  a  thought  when  dressed  in  the  most  artistic  garb  of  poetry  is 
very  different  from  the  effect  produced  by  the  same  thought  when 
clad  in  the  commonplace  habiliments  of  ordinary  prose  ;  and  even 
when  clothed  in  the  humblest  poetic  attire,  thought  carries  with  it 
a  charm  that  it  does  not  possess  when  couched  in  the  highest  form 
of  prose.  The  learner  should  try  to  distinguish  between  the  effect 
of  the  naked  thought  itself  and  that  of  the  language  which  gives  it 
expression.  In  this  he  will  be  aided  by  the  exercise  of  transpo- 
sition. 

Methods.  —  Poetry  may  be  transposed  into  prose,  either  by  a 
change  of  phraseology,  or  by  merely  eliminating  what  is  poetic. 

FIRST    METHOD. 

The  first  method  consists  in  writing  out  in  good  prose  the  gen- 
eral meaning  of  the  poetry  under  consideration.  This,  if  properly 
carried  out,  is  a  profitable  exercise  for  beginners  in  composition, 
as  it  trains  them  in  examining  closely  the  meaning  of  terse  and 
compact  language,  and  in  expressing  thoughts  with  care  and  exact- 
ness. This  exercise  scarcely  differs  from  that  in  the  last  Lesson, 
where  prose  is  transposed  into  other  prose  by  changing  the  phra- 
seology. The  object  in  l)0th  is  to  reproduce  the  same  thought  in 
different  language. 

How  to  Paraphrase. — The  following  directions  will  assist  in 
paraphrasing  :  — 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1 85 

1.  Read  and  re-read  the  poem  till  you  understand  it  perfectly. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  leading  and  subordinate  thoughts. 

3.  Lay  aside  the  poem  and  express  the  thoughts  in  your  own 
language. 

4.  Be  careful  not  to  leave  out  any  of  the  thoughts  or  sentiments 
of  the  original. 

5.  Be  equally  careful  not  to  introduce  any  not  contained  in  it. 

6.  Do  not  use  poetic  words  or  expressions. 

7.  Bring  out  as  far  as  possible  the  full  force  of  all  figures,  poetic 
epithets,  and  phrases. 

8.  Compare  your  version,  sentence  by  sentence  and  thought  by 
thought,  with  the  original. 

9.  If  you  have  used  any  of  the  language  of  the  poem  put  other 
words  in  their  stead. 

10.  After  you  have  severely  criticised  your  work  rewrite  it. 
Example.  — 

"  Not  enjoyment,  and  not  sorrow, 
Is  our  destined  end  or  way  ; 
But  to  act  that  each  to-morrow 
Find  us  farther  than  to-day. 

"  Art  is  long,  and  time  is  fleeting, 

And  our  hearts  though  stout  and  brave, 
Still,  like  muffled  drums,  are  beating 
Funeral  marches  to  the  grave." 

Paraphrased.  —  We  are  not  placed  in  this  world  merely  for  the 
purpose  of  enjoying  ourselves,  or  of  dragging  out  our  lives  in  sor- 
row, but  we  are  sent  here  to  improve  the  time  in  developing  the 
capabilities  that  are  given  us.  For  this,  ample  opportunity  is 
afforded  in  the  vast  fields  of  knowledge,  research,  and  toil  that 
lie  spread  out  before  us.  Though  the  full  investigation  of  these 
might  employ  ages,  yet  but  a  few  short  years  are  granted  us.  At 
times,  indeed,  we  feel  as  if  we  might  live  forever,  but  we  should  not 
presume  on  life,  for  every  throb  of  our  hearts  reminds  us  that  we 
are  rapidly  drawing  nearer  the  close  of  our  allotted  time. 


1 86  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


SECOND    METHOD. 

The  second  method  of  transposing  poetry  into  prose,  consists  in 
making  only  such  changes  as  are  necessary  to  change  the  one  form 
of  expression  into  the  other. 

Where  to  Begin. — The  pupil  must  first  of  all  acquire  a  defi- 
nite idea  of  the  distinction  between  the  form  of  poetry  and  that 
of  prose.  He  must  not  fall  into  the  error  of  supposing  that  form 
is  spirit,  that  measure  and  arrangement  are  poetry.  It  is  not  dif- 
ficult to  tell  where  the  mechanical  structure  of  verse  ends  and 
that  of  prose  begins ;  but  apart  from  this,  poetry  and  prose  exist 
in  so  great  variety,  and  are  so  gradually  shaded  into  each  other, 
that  the  most  expert  critic  is  befogged  when  he  attempts  to  dis- 
cern the  line  between  them.  The  truth  is,  we  have  much  poetical 
prose,  as  well  as  an  abundance  of  prosaic  poetry. 

What  is  to  be  Done.  — What  poetry  is  in  its  essence,  we  need 
not  attempt  to  determine.  If  we  could  decide,  we  should  not  be 
materially  assisted  in  the  ungracious  task  before  us  —  the  task  of 
destroying  an  intrinsic  beauty  we  can  neither  create  nor  define, 
but  one  that  we  can  all  enjoy  and  admire.  In  transposing  poetry 
into  prose,  that  is,  into  the  prose  form,  we  need  not  in  every 
case  drive  out  the  living  and  pervading  poetic  spirit.  Our  task  is 
simply  to  change  the  form  from  the  poetic  to  the  prose.  In  order 
to  do  this,  we  shall  proceed  to  examine  the  differences  between 
these  two  forms. 

Differences. — The  points  of  difference  to  be  noticed  are  in- 
cluded under  the  heads  of  Rhyme,  Measure,  and  Diction.  Dicfion 
comprises  Arrangement,  Expedients  for  Brevity,  Words,  Concrete 
and  Particular  Terms,  and  Figurative  Language. 

Rhyme.  —  As  rhyme  cannot  in  any  case  enter  into  prose,  it 
presents  no  difficulty.  In  transposing  it  is  simply  eliminated  by 
substituting  for  one  of  the  rhyming  words  some  suitable  synonym. 

Measure.  —  Of  all  the  characteristics  in  which  poetry  differs 
from  prose,  there  is  but  one  that  is  pecuHar  to  poetry.  That  one 
is  metre.     Composition  that  is  written  in  metre  is  poetry,  in  form 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1 8/ 

at  least,  while  that  which  is  not  is  prose.     Some  poetry  seems  to 

be  distinguished  from  prose  only  by  the  possession  of  metre. 

How  Transposed.  —  In  poetry  which  is  expressed  in  this  plain 

and  simple  style,  all  that  is  necessary  to  convert  it  into  prose  form 

is  merely  to  remove  the  metre  by  inserting  or  omitting  words,  as 

in  the  example  following. 

Example.  — 

"  Pray,  do  not  mock  me, 

I  am  a  very  foolish,  fond  old  man. 

Four-score  and  upwards  ;  and,  to  deal  plainly, 

I  fear  I  am  not  in  my  perfect  mind. 

Methinks  I  should  know  you,  and  know  this  man ; 

Yet  I  am  doubtful ;  for  I  am  mainly  ignorant 

What  place  this  is,  and  all  the  skill  I  have 

Remembers  not  these  garments  ;  nor  I  know  not 

Where  I  did  lodge  last  night.  —  Do  not  laugh  at  me, 

For,  as  I  am  a  man,  I  think  this  lady 

To  be  my  child  Cordelia  !  " 

In  this  there  is  not  a  word,  not  a  phrase,  not  an  expression,  that 
might  not  be  used  in  the  plainest  and  simplest  prose,  yet  no  per- 
son whose  ear  is  attuned  to  the  music  of  verse  can  fail  to  discover 
in  it  that  something  we  cannot  describe,  but  which  we  call  poetry. 
Now,  let  us  make  a  change  the  least  possible,  but  still  sufficient  to 
throw  out  the  metre,  and  we  shall  find  that  the  imprisoned  spirit 
has  fled,  that  the  poetry  has  become  prose. 

Transposed.  —  I  pray  you  do  not  mock  me,  I  am,  indeed,  a 
very  foolish,  fond  old  man  of  four-score  year"^  and  upwards ;  and, 
to  deal  plainly  with  you,  I  fear  I  am  not  in  my  perfect  mind.  I 
think  I  should  know  you,  and  this  man,  also,  but  yet  I  am  doubt- 
ful ;  for  I  am  quite  ignorant  what  place  this  is,  and  all  the  skill  I 
have  does  not  remember  these  garments,  nor  do  I  know  where  I 
lodged  last  night.  —  Do  not  laugh  at  me,  for  as  surely  as  I  am  a 
man,  I  think  this  lady  is  my  child  Cordelia. 


l88  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  LIX. 

Transposing  and  Paraphrasing. 

■    Direction.  —  Transpose  by  removing  the  measure;   then  paraphrase. 

1.  "  I  met  a  little  cottage  girl ; 

She  was  eight  years  old,  she  said  ; 
Her  hair  was  thick  with  many  a  curl 
That  clustered  round  her  head." 

2.  "  They  got  into  a  hackney  coach, 

And  trotted  down  the  street. 
I  saw  them  go ;  one  horse  was  blind. 
The  tails  of  both  hung  down  behind. 
Their  shoes  were  on  their  feet." 

3.  "  True  ease  in  writing  comes  from  art,  not  chance, 

As  those  move  easiest  who  have  learned  to  dance." 

4.  "  The  sound  must  be  an  echo  of  the  sense. 

Soft  is  the  strain  when  Zephyr  gently  blows, 

And  the  smooth  stream  in  smoother  numbers  flows  ; 

But  when  loud  surges  lash  the  sounding  shore, 

The  hoarse,  rough  verse  should  like  the  torrent  roar.'' 

5.  "The  creeping  vermin,  loathsome  to  the  sight, 

And  charged,  perhaps,  with  venom,  that  intrudes, 

A  visitor  unwelcome,  into  scenes 

Sacred  to  neatness  and  repose,  the  alcove, 

The  chamber,  or  refectory,  may  die  — 

A  necessary  act  incurs  no  blame." 

6.  "  Defend  me  therefore.  Common  Sense,  say  I, 

From  reveries  so  airy,  from  the  toil 
Of  dropping  buckets  into  empty  wells, 
And  growing  old  in  drawing  nothing  up." 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1 89 

"  O  yet  we  trust  that  somehow  good 
Will  be  the  final  goal  of  ill ; 
That  nothing  walks  with  aimless  feet, 
That  not  one  life  shall  be  destroyed, 
Or  cast  as  rubbish  to  the  void, 
When  God  hath  made  the  pile  complete." 


LESSON   XXXV. 

DIFFERENCES   BETWEEN   POETRY  AND   PROSE.  —  DICTION. 

Poetic  diction  is  a  term  employed  to  denote  the  form  of  ex- 
pression peculiar  to  poetry.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  only 
in  a  modified  sense  can  it  be  asserted  that  poetry  has  a  diction  of 
its  own.  There  are  comparatively  few  words  or  forms  of  expres- 
sion used  in  poetry  that  may  not  also  be  employed  in  some  of  the 
higher  forms  of  prose,  especially  in  Oratory.  But  we  must  not 
suppose  that  in  narrative,  descriptive,  or  expository  prose  it  is 
befitting  to  avail  oneself  of  the  delicacy  of  wording  and  structure 
that  is  quite  in  place  in  poetry,  and  that  is  one  of  its  chief  orna- 
ments. In  poetry,  as  in  prose,  there  is  great  variety  of  diction. 
Sometimes,  as  we  have  just  seen,  the  language  is  as  plain  and 
simple  and  unadorned  as  in  the  humblest  prose  ;  from  this  it  rises 
through  all  possible  gradations  of  elaboration,  till  it  reaches  the 
highest  point  of  polished  splendor. 

Arrangement. 

One  of  the  features  of  poetic  diction  is  the  use  of  less  usual  and 
more  inverted  constructions  than  are  commonly  found  in  prose. 
We  must  never  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  object  of  poetry  is, 
primarily,  to  please.  This  it  seeks  to  do  by  many  arts.  As  agree- 
able sounds,  both  those  that  are  actively  and  those  that  are  pas- 
sively so^  are  a  source  of  pleasure,  the  poet  arranges  his  line  so  as 


190  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

to  secure  the  highest  degree  of  melody.  Again,  an  unusual  and 
unexpected  order  of  words  may  give  rise  to  an  agreeable  surprise. 
If,  therefore,  the  melody  can  be  increased  and  a  pleasing  surprise 
effected  by  the  same  deviation,  a  double  pleasure  is  afforded. 
The  attainment  of  these  objects,  along  with  the  requirements  of 
measure,  accounts  for  the  inverted  constructions  of  poetry.  In 
prose,  on  the  other  hand,  as  the  object  is  to  inform  the  under- 
standing, everything  is  made  subservient  to  clearness,  directness, 
and  force  of  expression.  Not  that  the  prose  writer  has  no  ear  for 
melody  or  no  eye  for  beauty.  He  does  not  disdain  to  embody  as 
much  of  music  and  of  all  the  other  beauties  of  composition  as  is 
consistent  with  the  nature  of  the  subject  he  is  treating ;  but  with 
him  these  are  secondary  objects. 

PiCTURESQUENESS. 

Many  words  darken  speech.  Poetry  seeks  to  present  clear  and 
distinct  images  to  the  mind  —  its  diction  is  picturesque.  Long 
sentences  and  involved  constructions  which  convey  the  thought  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  cannot  be  grasped  without  an  effort,  require 
a  labor  that  destroys  the  pleasure  poetry  is  intended  to  impart ; 
hence  it  makes  use  of  the  briefest  forms  of  expression  consistent 
with  clearness.  Many,  if  not  all,  of  the  expedients  employed  to 
attain  brevity  in  poetry  are  also  used  in  prose,  but  poetry,  as  will 
be  seen,  makes  a  still  bolder  use  of  them. 

Among  the  means  adopted  to  render  the  language  of  poetry 
picturesque  may  be  mentioned  — 

1.  The  omission  of  connectives;  as, — 

"  The  dew  was  foiling  fast ;  the  stars  began  to  blink  ; 
I  heard  a  voice  ;  it  cried  :  '  Drink,  pretty  creature,  drink  !  '  " 

On  the  other  hand,  the  connectives  are  sometimes  repeated  in 
poetry  where  they  would  be  omitted  in  prose. 

2.  Absolute  constructions  ;  as, — 

"  The  hour  concealed,  a7id  so  7-emote  the  fear. 
Death  still  draws  nearer,  never  seeming  near." 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  I9I 

3.  Adjectives  instead  of  clauses. — The  adjective  takes  the 
place  of  a  variety  of  kinds  of  clauses  that  would  ordinarily  be 
expressed  at  length  in  prose  ;  as,  — 

"  Lely  on  ajiimated  canvas  stole 
The  sleepy  eye  which  spoke  the  melting  soul." 

i.e.,  the  canvas  which  assumed  life  under  his  pencil. 

4.  Participial  constructions  ;  as,  — 

"  Nigh  foundered,  on  he  fares, 
Treading  the  crude  consistence,  half  on  foot,  half  y?i7>/^." 

"  My  sudden  hand 
Prevented,  spares  to  tell  thee  yet  by  deeds  what  it  intends." 

5.  Ellipses  that  would  not  be  permissible  in  prose  are  fre- 
quently found  in  poetry  ;  as,  — 

a.  Of  the  article  ;  as,  — 

"  The  why  is  plain  as  way  to  parish  church." 

b.  Of  pronouns  ;  as,  — 

"  It  was  a  tall  young  gentleman  lived  by  the  riverside." 

c.  Of  the  verb  ;  as,  — 

"Sweet  the  pleasure,  rich  the  treasure." 

d.  Of  the  conjunction  and  verb  ;  as,  — 

"  By  thee  I  might  correct,  erroneous  oft, 
The  clock  of  history." 

6.  Poetic  Grammar.  —  For  the  sake  of  an  agreeable  surprise, 
and  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  liberties  are  taken  with  the  rules  of 
grammar,  and  deviations  from  them  made,  under  the  name  of 
Poetic  License. 

a.   Adjectives  for  adverbs  ;  as,  — 

"  So  sweet  she  sung  "  ; 
for  "  sweetly." 


192  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

b.  One  conjunction  for  another  ;  as,  — 

"  Nor  day  nor  night  my  heart  has  rest  "  ; 
for  "  Neither  day  nor  night  my  heart  has  rest." 

c.  One  case  for  another  \  as,  — 

"  So  you  must  ride  on  horseback  after  we.'^ 

d.  One  part  of  the  verb  for  another  ;  as,  — 

"  But  saw  her  not 
Before  his  weary  pilgrimage  begun." 

e.  One  pronoun  for  another ;  as,  — 

"  I  will  paint  me  with  black." 
/.    Pleonastic  pronouns  ;  as,  — 

"  My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees." 

7.  Epithets.  — As  poetry  combines  with  the  object  of  graphi- 
cally presenting  ideas  and  images,  the  still  higher  one  of  giving 
pleasure,  it  makes  use  of  language  at  once  instructive  and  pleas- 
ing. In  this  way,  we  find  poetry  coining  new  words,  or  combining 
other  words  into  epithets  in  an  original  and  delightful  manner. 
These  epithets  often  convey,  in  brief,  a  fulness  of  meaning  that 
could  be  expressed  only  by  a  whole  clause  or  sentence  in  the 
common  prosaic  style.     Thus  :  — 

"  Grieving,  if  aught  inanimate  e'er  grieves. 
O'er  the  iinreiurning  brave." 

i.e.,  "The  brave  who  are  destined  never  to  return." 

'■'■  Neiu-lighied  o\\  a  heaven-kissing  hill." 

i.e.,  "A  hill  that  reaches  up  to  and  kisses  the  heavens." 

8.  Pictorial  Epithets.  —  Sometimes  epithets  are  used,  not  be- 
cause they  are  necessary  to  the  sense,  but  because  they  suggest  som^ 
idea  that  helps  to  render  the  picture  more  complete.     Thus  :  — 

"Under  a  i;/i;r(i'i'//V/^ chestnut-tree." 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  I93 

9.  Epithet  for  Name.  — The  poet  often  goes  further,  and  puts 
the  epithet  for  the  name  of  the  thing,  with  a  boldness  that  would 
not  be  allowable  in  prose.     Thus  :  — 

"  Below  the  chestnut  when  their  buds 
Were  glistening  to  the  breezy  dlite^ 
i.e.,  "The  sky." 

"The  dead  vast  of  night." 
i.e.,  "  Waste." 

Words. 

Certain  words  and  word-forms  are  peculiar  to  poetry. 

1.  Poetic  Words.  —  Poetry,  especially  poetry  of  the  elevated 
style,  makes  use  of  many  words  that  may  be  called  poetic,  as  they 
are  seldom,  if  ever,  admissible  in  prose  of  any  kind.  They  are 
such  as  sti7/r,  vastv,  bewept,  welkin,  7vend,  meed,  wildi)ig,  quoth. 

Closely  allied  to  these  is  another  class,  used  in  the  higher  kinds 
of  prose,  and  also  in  poetry.  They  are  such  as  isle,  mount,  betujixt, 
vale,  nigh,  ire,  yore. 

Again,  words  are  often  used  in  poetry  in  an  unusual  or  improper 
sense ;  as,  — 

"  Chill  penury  repressed  their  noble  rage.'' 

2.  Altered  Words. — To  suit  tlie  measure,  words  are  frequently 
altered  in  form.  This  may  be  done  by  cutting  off  a  syllable  at  the 
beginning  (Aphseresis),  or  at  the  end  (Apocope),  or  by  throwing 
out  a  syllable  from  the  middle  (Syncope).  Thus  :  'plaint,  'gainst, 
'gan  ;  morn,  eve,  ope,  vampire  ;  ne'er,  fav'rite. 

3.  Old  Words.  —  Because  old  words  and  archaic  forms  add 
dignity  to  the  style,  and  because  they  are  shorter  than  the  modern, 
poetry  makes  frequent  use  of  them,  though  they  would  not  be 
allowed  in  prose.  They  are  such  as  ween,  whilom,  clomb,  hight, 
yclept,  erst. 

4.  Proper  Names.  —  In  this  connection,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  in  the  names  of  places,  countries,  or  persons,  old   names  or 


194  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

altered  forms  of  modern  nrmes  are  very  often  employed  for  the 
sake  of  elevation  or  euphon)  ;  as, — 

'■  Though  the  last  glimpse  oi  Erin  with  sorrow  I  see, 
Yet  wherever  thou  art  shall  seem  Erin  to  me." 

In  the  same  way,  instead  of  the  name  of  a  person,  place,  or 
thing,  is  found  in  poetry  some  quality,  characteristic,  or  accom- 
paniment that  suggests  it ;  as,  "  He  loves  the  Green  IsleT 

Concrete  and  Specific  Terms. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  both  Strength  and  Clear- 
ness are  promoted  by  the  use  of  concrete  terms  instead  of  abstract, 
and  of  particular  instead  of  generic.  In  poetry,  where  pleasure  is 
the  purpose  of  the  language,  it  is  natural  that  every  word  should  as 
far  as  possible  be  adapted  to  call  up  some  image.  So  we  find  that 
poetry  even  more  than  prose  prefers  specific  and  concrete  terms 
to  generic  and  abstract.     Thus  :  — 

"  The  hawtJiorn  biisJi  with  seats  beneath  the  shade." 

"  The  hollow-sounding  biilern  guards  its  nest  ; 
Amidst  thy  desert  walks  the  lapwing  flies." 

EUPHONIOUSNESS. 

In  the  diction  of  poetry  special  attention  is  given  to  sound.  For 
the  purpose  of  heightening  th„  music  of  the  lines,  free  use  is  made 
of  — 

1 .  Alliteration  ;  as,  — 

"bareheaded,  /breathless,  and  /besprent  with  mire." 

2.  The  most  musical  syllables  and  combinations  that  can 
be  found  ;  as,  — 

"  Oh  !  make  her  a  grave  where  the  sunbeams  rest 
When  they  promise  a  glorious  morrow." 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  I95 

3.    Imitative  harmony  in  words  and  movement ;  as,  — 

"  O'er  the  river,  through  the  brake, 
On  we  hie  with  screech  and  roar  ! 

Splashing  !  flashing  !  crashing  !  dashing  ! 
Over  ridges,  gulHes,  bridges  ! 
By  the  bubbhng  rill,  and  mill  — 
Highways,  byways, 
Hollow  hill  — 
Jumping  —  bumping  —  rocking  —  roaring 
Like  forty  thousand  giants  snoring  !  " 

Sometimes  proper  names  are  changed  or  modified  for  the  sake 
of  euphony  ;  as,  — 

"  Which  Albyn's  hills  have  heard." 

"  Under  the  Ethiop  line." 

Figurative  Language. 

Figurative  language,  like  most  of  the  other  features  of  poetic 
diction,  is  not  peculiar  to  poetry,  but  is  common  also  to  prose  ; 
yet  there  is  a  wide  distinction  in  its  use  in  these  two  departments 
of  composition.  \\\  the  divisions  of  prose  that  fall  under  the  heads 
of  Description,  Narration,  and  Exposition,  figures  of  speech  are 
sparingly  used,  and  rarely  for  any  purpose  except  that  of  illus- 
tration or  explanation  ;  in  Oratory,  whose  object  is  to  influence 
the  will  by  appealing  to  the  feelings,  the  passions,  or  the  prejudices 
of  the  listeners,  figurative  language  is  more  freely  employed.  The 
orator  seeks  to  ingratiate  himself  with  his  hearers  in  order  that  his 
opinions  and  views  may  find  acceptance  with  them.  Hence,  he 
makes  his  language  pleasing  that  he  may  first  catch  the  ear  and 
afterwards  win  the  judgment.  In  poetry,  whose  chief  object  is 
to  give  pleasure,  and  whose  grand  aim  is  missed  if  it  does  not, 
the  adornment  of  the  language  is  of  the  highest  importance.  Yet 
figures  of  speech  are  not  the  only,  nor  even  the  chief  beauty  of 
poetic  diction  ;  there  is  much  true  poetry  in  which  the  language 


196  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

is  as  plain  and  simple  as  that  of  any  prose.  In  this  the  very 
plainness,  simpUcity,  and  neatness  are  the  choicest  embellish- 
ments. But  poetry  is  allowed  every  variety  of  diction  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject  and 
the  style  of  treatment  required.  Although  there  is  no  subject 
dealt  with  in  poetry  that  might  not  be  treated  in  prose,  yet  the 
converse  is  not  true,  for  the  materials  of  poetry  are  confined  to 
nature  and  humanity,  while  even  here  the  choice  of  subjects  is 
limited  by  the  laws  of  sesthetic  feeling  and  by  a  consideration 
of  what  will  give  pleasure.  Now,  it  is  evident  that  if  the  same 
subject  is  treated  in  poetry  and  in  prose,  as  the  ' '  ject  is,  in  each 
case,  different,  so  the  style,  diction,  and  effect  must  be  dissimilar. 
In  Narrative  and  Descriptive  poetry,  for  example,  there  is  dis- 
tinct purpose  to  be  attained  ;  in  th^  one,  to  relate  a  story,  and  in 
the  other  to  present  a  picture  to  the  mind's  eye.  In  both  cases 
that  purpose  is  to  be  accomplished  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
process  and  the  result,  the  means  and  the  end,  shall  be  pleasing 
apart  from  the  intrinsic  interest  of  the  story  or  the  beauty  of  the 
picture.  The  instrumentaUty  by  which  each  of  these  purposes 
is  to  be  effected  is  language.  Hence,  as  figurative  speech  is 
briefer,  more  pleasing,  and  more  striking  than  literal,  it  is  the 
chosen  vehicle  of  poetry. 

In  transposing,  the  difficulty  is  to  determine  just  what  figures 
are  to  be  allowed  to  remain,  and  what  ones  are  to  be  cast  out. 
This  cannot  be  taught  by  rule,  but  must  be  left  to  the  taste  and 
judgment  of  the  pupil. 

The  Limit.  —  Perhaps,  after  all,  it  is  only  the  humbler  and 
more  indifferent  kinds  of  poetry  that  can  be  rendered  in  prose. 
It  is  true,  as  already  stated,  that  thoughts  or  fancies  may  be  ex- 
pressed either  in  the  prose  or  in  the  poetic  form.  But  how  much 
is  sometimes  conveyed  in  the  form  alone  !  What  richness  of 
fancy,  what  sublime  harmony,  what  warmth  of  coloring,  what 
delicacy  of  feeling,  what  grandeur  and  loftiness  of  sentiment,  are 
often  enwrapped  in  the  very  language  in  which  poetry  clothes  the 
thought  !     Who,  for  example,  could  express  in  prose  all  the  effect 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  1 97 

of  Milton's  description  of  Satan's  flight  to  this  world,  or  of  the 
Garden  of  Eden,  or,  in  fact,  any  of  our  sublimer  poetry  ?  The 
literal  meaning  of  the  words  may,  undoubtedly,  be  written  out  in 
a  pitiful  kind  of  prose  —  prose  that  at  its  best  is  scarcely  fit  to  be 
considered  a  caric'ture  of  the  original.  It  may  convey  the  same 
ideas,  but  these  ideas,  so  presented,  do  not  produce  on  the  mind 
the  same  effect  as  they  do  in  the  form  of  poetry.  Words  are  not 
all  of  language  ;  the  manner  in  which  they  are  combined,  and  the 
way  in  which  they  are  made  to  present  pictures  to  the  mind,  and, 
above  all,  the  power  they  have,  in  a  master's  hand,  to  suggest  im- 
ages, thoughts,  and  fancies,  to  fill  themselves,  as  it  were,  with  life, 
and  beauty,  and  passion,  —  this  is  the  body  and  soul  of  language, 
and  without  this  the  words  themselves  are  but  as  the  dry  bones  in 
Ezekiel's  valley. 

EXERCISE  LX. 

Transposing  and  Paraphrasing. 

Direction.  —  Transpose  by  removing  the  measure  and  the  poetic  arrange- 
ment;  then  paraphrase. 

1.  "  For  contemplation  he,  and  valor,  formed  ; 

For  softness  she,  and  sweet  attractive  grace." 

2.  "  His  step  than  the  red-deer's  was  freer  and  lighter; 

His  eye  than  the  eagle's  was  keener  and  brighter." 

3.  "  Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 

A  youth  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown." 

4.  "  When  Ajax  strives  some  rock's  vast  weight  to  throw, 

The  line  too  labors,  and  the  words  move  slow." 

5.  "  The  power  of  music  all  our  hearts  allow. 

And  what  Timotheus  was,  is  Dryden  now." 

6.  "  How  sleep  the  brave  that  sink  to  rest, 

By  all  their  country's  wishes  blest !  " 


198  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

7.  "  On  Fame's  eternal  camping-ground 

Their  silent  tents  are  spread  ; 
And  Glory  guards,  with  solemn  round, 
The  bivouac  of  the  dead." 

8.  "  I  saw  from  the  beach  when  the  morning  was  shining, 

A  bark  o'er  the  waters  move  gloriously  on  : 
I  came,  when  the  sun  o'er  that  beach  was  dechning  — 
The  bark  was  still  there,  but  the  waters  were  gone." 

9.  "  'Mid  scenes  of  confusion  and  creature  complaints, 

How  sweet  to  the  soul  is  communion  with  Saints ; 
To  find  at  the  banquet  of  mercy  there's  room. 
And  feel  in  the  presence  of  Jesus  at  home  !  " 

EXERCISE  LXI. 

Transposing  and  Paraphrasing. 

Direction.  —  Transpose   by  removing   the   rhyme,  measure,  and   poetic 
diction;    then  paraphrase. 

1.  "  Six  frozen  winters  spent. 
Return  with  welcome  home  from  banishment." 

2.  "  The  cock  is  crowing  :  the  stream  is  flowing  ; 

The  small  birds  twitter  :  the  lake  doth  glitter ; 
The  green  fields  sleep  in  the  sun." 

3.  "  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 

We  can  make  our  lives  sublime  ; 
And,  departing,  leave  behind  us 
Footprints  on  the  sands  of  time." 

4.  "  And  as  a  hare,  whom  hounds  and  horns  pursue, 

Pants  to  the  place  from  whence  at  first  she  flew, 
I  still  had  hopes,  my  long  vexations  past, 
Here  to  return  —  and  die  at  home  at  last." 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  199 

5.  "  The  crawling  glaciers  pierce  me  with  the  spears 

Of  their  moon-freezing  crystals,  the  bright  chains 
Eat  with  their  burning  cold  into  my  bones." 

6.  "  Know  ye    ot  me, 
The  Titan  ?     He  who  made  his  agony 

The  barrier  to  your  else  all-conqu  :ring  foe  ? 

Oh,  rock-embosomed  lawns,  aid  snow-fed  streams, 

Now  seen  athwart  frore  vapors,  deep  bebw. 

Through  whose  o'ershadowing  woods  I  wandered  once 

With  Asia,  drinking  life  from  her  oved  eyes." 

^.  "  Thus  ended  he,  and  both 

Sat  silent :  for  the  maid  was  very  loth 
To  answer ;  feeUng  well  that  breathed  words 
Would  all  be  lost,  unheard,  and  vain  as  swords 
Against  the  encased  crocodile,  or  leaps 
Of  grasshoppers  against  the  sun." 


EXERCISE  LXII. 

Transposing  and  Paraphrasing. 

Directions. — Transpose  by  removing  the  rhyme,   measure,  and   poetic 
diction;    then  paraphrase. 

I.  "Deep  in  the  shady  sadness  of  a  vale 

Far  sunken  from  the  healthy  breath  of  morn, 
Far  from  the  fiery  noon,  and  eve's  lone  star, 
Sat  gray-haired  Saturn,  quiet  as  a  stone." 


2. 


"  He  held  him  with  hi;  skinny  hand  ; 
'There  was  a  ship,'  quoth  he. 
'  Hold  off!  unhand  me,  gray-beard  loon 
Eftsoons  his  hand  dropt  he." 


200  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

3.  "  Oh,  lone  and  lorn  my  lot  ! 
To  me  the  sunshine  is  a  joy  unknown  ; 

In  vain  earth's  lap  with  rarest  flowers  are  strown  — 
I  crush,  but  see  them  not." 

4.  "  Thy  converse  drew  us  with  delight, 

The  man  of  rathe  and  riper  years  : 
The  feeble  soul  a  haunt  of  fears. 
Forgot  his  weakness  in  thy  sight." 

5.  "Well  I  ween,  the  charm  he  held 

The  noble  Ladye  had  soon  dispelled  ; 
But  she  was  deeply  busied  then 
To  tend  the  wounded  Deloraine." 

6.  "  Who  shall  tempt  with  wandering  feet 
The  dark,  unbottomed,  infinite  abyss, 

And  through  the  palpable  obscure  find  out 
His  uncouth  way,  or  spread  his  aery  flight, 
Upborne  with  indefatigable  wings. 
Over  the  vast  abrupt,  ere  he  arrive 
The  happy  isle?  " 

7.  "  For  thus  it  chanced  one  morn  when  all  the  court. 

Green-suited,  but  with  plumes  that  mocked  the  May, 
Had  been,  their  wont,  a-maying  and  return'd, 
That  Modred  still  in  green,  all  ear  and  eye, 
Climbed  to  the  top  of  the  garden  wall 
To  spy  some  secret  scandal  if  he  might, 
And  saw  the  Queen,  who  sat  betwixt  her  best 
Enid,  and  lissome  Vivien,  of  her  Court 
The  wiUest  and  the  worst." 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  20I 

EXERCISE   LXIII. 

Paraphrasing. 

Directions.  —  Write  out  in  prose  the  meaning  of  the  following  poem. 
Review.  See  that  all  your  words  are  properly  used,  all  your  sentences  cor- 
rectly formed,  and  all  your  paragraphs  regularly  constructed. 

THE   SOLDIER   OF  THE   RHINE. 

A  soldier  of  the  Legion  lay  dying  in  Algiers, 

There  was  lack  of  woman's  nursing,  there  was  dearth  of  woman's 

tears ; 
But  a  comrade  stood  beside  him,  while  his  life-blood  ebbed  away, 
And  bent,  with  pitying  glances,  to  hear  what  he  might  say. 
The  dying  soldier  faltered,  as  he  took  that  comrade's  hand, 
And  he  said  :  "  I  never  more  shall  see  my  own,  my  native  land ; 
Take  a  message  and  a  token  to  some  distant  friends  of  mine, 
For  I  was  born  at  Bingen,  —  at  Bingen  on  the  Rhine. 

"  Tell  my  brothers  and  companions,  when  they  meet  and  crowd 

around. 
To  hear  my  mournful  story  in  the  pleasant  vineyard  ground, 
That  we  fought  the  battle  bravely,  and  when  the  day  was  done, 
Full  many  a  corpse  lay  ghastly  pale  beneath  the  setting  sun ; 
And  'mid  the-  dead  and  dying,  were  some  grown  old  in  wars,  — 
The  death-wound  on  their  gallant  breasts,  the  last  of  many  scars ; 
But  some  were  young,  and  suddenly  beheld  life's  morn  decline,  — 
And  one  had  come  from  Bingen,  —  fair  Bingen  on  the  Rhine. 

"  Tell  my  mother  that  her  other  sons  shall  comfort  her  old  age, 

For  I  was  aye  a  truant  bird,  that  thought  his  home  a  cage. 

For  my  father  was  a  soldier,  and,  even  when  a  child, 

My  heart  leaped  forth  to  hear  him  tell  of  struggles  fierce  and  wild  ; 

And  when  he  died,  and  left  us  to  divide  his  scanty  hoard, 

I  let  them  take  whate'er  they  would,  but  kept  my  father's  sword  ; 


202  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

And  with  boyish  love  I  hung  it  where  the  bright  Hght  used  to 

shine, 
On  the  cottage  wall  at  Bingen,  —  calm  Bingen  on  the  Rhine. 

"  Tell    my  sister   not   to  weep  for  me,  and  sob  with  drooping 

head. 
When  the  troops   come   marching   home    again,  with   glad   and 

gallant  tread. 
But  to  look  upon  them  proudly,  with  a  calm  and  steadfast  eye, 
For  her  brother  was  a  soldier  too,  and  not  afraid  to  die  ; 
And  if  a  comrade  seek  her  love,  I  ask  her  in  my  name 
To  listen  to  him  kindly,  without  regret  or  shame. 
And  to  hang  the  old  sword  in  its  place  (my  father's  sword  and 

mine). 
For  the  honor  of  old  Bingen,  —  dear  Bingen  on  the  Rhine. 

"  There's  another,  —  not  a  sister,  —  in  the  happy  days  gone  by  ; 
You'd  have  known  her  by  the  merriment  that  sparkled  in  her  eye  ; 
Too  innocent  for  coquetry,  —  too  fond  for  idle  scorning,  — 
O  friend  !   I   fear   the   lightest   heart  makes  sometimes   heaviest 


mournmg 


Tell  her  the  last  night  of  my  life —  (for  ere  the  moon  be  risen, 
My  body  will  be  out  of  pain,  my  soul  be  out  of  prison)  — 
I  dreamed  I  stood  with  her,  and  saw  the  yellow  sunlight  shine 
On  the  vine-clad  hills  of  Bingen,  —  fair  Bingen  on  the  Rhine. 

"  I  saw  the  blue  Rhine  sweep  along ;  I  heard,  or  seemed  to  hear, 
The  German  songs  we  used  to  sing,  in  chorus  sweet  and  clear ; 
And  down  the  pleasant  river,  and  up  the  slanting  hill, 
The  echoing  chorus  sounded,  through  the  evening  calm  and  still ; 
And  her  glad  blue  eyes  were  on  me,  as  we  passed,  with  friendly 

talk, 
Down  many  a  path  beloved  of  yore,  and  well-remembered  walk ; 
And  her  little  hand  lay  lightly,  confidingly  in  mine, — 
But  we'll  meet  no  more  at  Bingen,  —  loved  Bingen  on  the  Rhine." 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  203 

His  trembling  voice  grew  faint  and  hoarse ;  his  grasp  was  childish 

weak, 
His  eyes  put  on  a  dying  look,  —  he  sighed  and  ceased  to  speak. 
His  comrade  bent  to  lift  him,  but  the  spark  of  life  had  fled  — 
The  soldier  of  the  Legion  in  a  foreign  land  was  dead  ! 
And  the  soft  moon  rose  up  slowly,  and  calmly  she  looked  down 
On  the  red  sand  of  the  battle-field,  with  bloody  corpses  strewn ; 
Yes,  calmly  on  that  dreadful  scene,  her  pale  light  seemed  to  shine, 
As  it  shone  on  distant  Bingen,  —  fair  Bingen  on  the  Rhine. 

—  Hon.  Mrs.  Norton. 

EXERCISE  LXIV. 

Paraphrasing. 

Direction.  —  Follow  the  Direction  of  the  preceding  Exercise. 

THANATOPSIS. 

To  him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds 

Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 

A  various  language  ;  for  his  gayer  hours 

She  has  a  voice  of  gladness,  and  a  smile 

And  eloquence  of  beauty  :  and  she  glides 

Into  his  darker  musings  with  a  mild 

And  healing  sympathy  that  steals  away 

Their  sharpness,  ere  he  is  aware.     When  thoughts 

Of  the  last  bitter  hour  come  like  a  blight 

Over  thy  spirit,  and  sad  images 

Of  the  stern  agony,  and  shroud,  and  pall, 

And  breathless  darkness,  and  the  narrow  house, 

Make  thee  to  shudder,  and  grow  sick  at  heart ;  — - 

Go  forth  under  the  open  sky,  and  list 

To  Nature's  teachings,  while  from  all  around  — 

Earth  and  her  waters,  and  the  depths  of  air  — 

Comes  a  still  voice.  —  Yet  a  few  days,  and  thee 

The  all-beholding  sun  shall  see  no  more 


204  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

In  all  his  course ;  nor  yet  in  the  cold  ground, 

Where  thy  pale  form  is  laid  with  many  tears, 

Nor  in  the  embrace  of  ocean,  shall  exist 

Thy  image.     Earth,  that  nourished  thee,  shall  claim 

Thy  growth,  to  be  resolved  to  earth  again, 

And,  lost  each  human  trace,  surrendering  up 

Thine  individual  being,  shalt  thou  go 

To  mix  for  ever  with  the  elements,  — 

To  be  a  brother  to  the  insensible  rock, 

And  to  the  sluggish  clod,  which  the  rude  swain 

Turns  with  his  share,  and  treads  upon.     The  oak 

Shall  send  his  roots  abroad,  and  pierce  thy  mould. 

Yet  not  to  thine  eternal  resting-place 

Shalt  thou  retire  alone  :  —  nor  couldst  thou  wish 

Couch  more  magnificent.     Thou  shalt  lie  down 

With  patriarchs  of  the  infant  world  —  with  kings. 

The  powerful  of  the  earth  —  the  wise,  the  good, 

Fair  forms,  and  hoary  seers,  of  ages  past, 

All  in  one  mighty  sepulchre.  —  The  hills 

Rock-ribbed,  and  ancient  as  the  sun ;  the  vales 

Stretching  in  pensive  quietness  between  ; 

The  venerable  woods  ;  rivers  that  move 

In  majesty,  and  the  complaining  brooks 

That  make  the  meadows  green ;  and,  poured  round  all, 

Old  ocean's  gray  and  melancholy  waste, — 

Are  but  the  solemn  decorations  all 

Of  the  great  tomb  of  man.     The  golden  sun, 

The  planets,  all  the  infinite  host  of  heaven. 

Are  shining  on  the  sad  abodes  of  death. 

Through  the  still  lapse  of  ages.     All  that  tread 

The  globe  are  but  a  handful  to  the  tribes 

That  .^lumber  in  its  bosom.  — Take  the  wings 

Of  morning,  and  the  Barcan  desert  pierce, 

Or  lose  thyself  in  the  continuous  woods 

Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound 


VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION.  20$ 

Save  his  own  dashings  —  yet  the  dead  are  there  ; 
And  miUions  in  those  soUtudes,  since  first 
The  flight  of  years  began,  have  laid  them  down 
In  their  last  sleep  —  the  dead  there  reign  alone. 

So  shalt  thou  rest ;  and  what  if  thou  withdraw 
Unheeded  by  the  living,  and  no  friend 
Take  note  of  thy  departure  ?     All  that  breathe 
Will  share  thy  destiny.     The  gay  will  laugh 
When  thou  art  gone,  the  solemn  brood  of  care 
Plod  on,  and  each  one,  as  before,  will  chase 
His  favorite  phantom  ;  yet  all  these  shall  leave 
Their  mirth  and  their  employments,  and  shall  come 
And  make  their  bed  with  thee.     As  the  long  train 
Of  ages  glides  away,  the  sons  of  men. 
The  youth  in  life's  green  spring,  and  he  who  goes 
In  the  full  strength  of  years,  matron  and  maid. 
The  bowed  with  age,  the  infant  in  the  smiles 
And  beauty  of  its  innocent  age,  cut  off. 
Shall  one  by  one  be  gathered  to  thy  side. 
By  those  who  in  their  turn  shall  follow  them. 

So  live  that  when  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan  that  moves 
To  that  mysterious  realm,  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death, 
Thou  go  not,  like  the  quarry-slave,  at  night. 
Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but,  sustained  and  soothed 
By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  thy  grave. 
Like  one  that  draws  the  drapery  of  his  couch 
About  him,  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams. 

—  William  Cullen  Bryant. 


206  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XXXVI. 

FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 

In  preceding  Lessons  we  have  studied  some  of  the  different 
forms  in  which  thought  may  be  expressed.  We  now  come  to  con- 
sider other  forms  which  are  of  such  importance  that  they  deserve 
to  be  examined  by  themselves.  These  are  usually  called  Figures 
of  Speech.  They  consist  of  intentional  deviations  from  the  ordi- 
nary application  of  words  or  from  the  usual  forms  of  expression. 
The  purpose  of  these  deviations  is  to  increase  the  effect  of  lan- 
guage —  to  present  thought  in  a  more  attractive  or  more  forcible 
manner. 

Examples.  —  "  He  is  a  lion."  Here  the  word  "  lion  "  is  turned 
from  its  usual  signification  to  denote  "  a  man  of  strength  and 
courage,"  and  it  expresses  the  idea  in  a  more  pleasing  and 
striking  way  than  do  the  plain  words. 

"  The  silver  moon  "  is  much  more  beautiful  than  "  The  moon 
which  has  a  pale  bright  color." 

Compare  further  :  — 

"  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters."  "Appearances  are  often  de- 

ceptive." 
"  Our  heads  are  in  the  hon's  "  We  are  completely  in  the 

mouth."  power   of  our  enemy,  and  he 

may  destroy  us  at  any  moment." 
"The  arrows  fell  like   flakes  "  The  arrows  fell  in  countless 

of  snow  on  Christmas  Day."  numbers." 

Value  and  Use  of  Figures.  —  Figures  of  Speech  perform  a 
very  important  part  in  language.  They  are  at  once  its  ornament 
and  its  strength.     Among  their  chief  uses  are  these  :  — 

I .  They  give  variety  by  affording  an  entirely  different  way  of 
expressing  a  thought. 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  20/ 

2.  They  enable  us  to  present  ideas  so  that  ;;hey  may  be  more 
easily  grasped.  This  is  especially  true  of  abstract  ideas,  as  they  are 
made  easier  of  comprehension  by  being  associated  with  concrete 
objects. 

3.  They  add  to  the  force  of  language. 

4.  They  enable  us  to  express  our  thoughts  in  a  more  attractive 
form. 

5.  They  give  elevation,  dignity,  and  grace  to  language. 

6.  They  increase  the  capabilities  of  language  by  giving  the  same 
word  the  power  of  presenting  different  ideas.  For  example,  in 
the  sentence,  "He  is  a  fox,"  the  word  "fox,"  which  usually 
denotes  an  animal,  is  here  employed  to  designate  the  "  quality  of 
craftiness." 

7.  In  general  terms,  it  may  be  said  that  Figures  of  Speech 
intensify  all  the  qualities  of  style. 

Kinds  of  Figures.  —  The  Figures  of  Speech  most  commonly 
used  may  be  classified  thus  :  — 

1.  Those  based  on  the  idea  of  resemblance,  —  the  Simile,  Met- 
aphor, Allegory,  Personification. 

2.  Those  based  on  contiguity  or  the  law  of  association, — 
Synecdoche,  Metonymy,  Hyperbole,  Apostrophe,  Vision. 

3.  Those  based  on  the  idea  of  contrast,  —  Antithesis,  Epigram, 
Euphemism,  Irony,  Interrogation,  Climax. 

The  Simile. 

A  Simile  is  a  figure  which  expresses  the  likeness  one  object 
bears  to  another.  The  objects  compared  must  differ  in  kind ; 
likening  one  man  to  another  or  one  house  to  another  does  not 
constitute  the  rhetorical  figure. 

The  likeness  is  generally  expressed  by  some  word  such  as,  like, 
as,  compared  to. 

Sometimes  the  sign  of  comparison  is  omitted,  as,  "  When  the 
rising  sun  fell  on  Memnon's  statue,  it  awakened  music  in  that 
breast  of  stone.     Reliirion  does  the  same  with  human  nature." 


208  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Rules.  —  In  the  use  of  similes,  the  following  rules  should  be 
observed  :  — 

1.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  things  which  have  too 
near  a  reseniblance  to  the  object  compared. 

2.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  objects  in  which  the  like- 
ness is  too  faint  or  remote. 

3.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  objects  unfamiliar  to 
ordinary  readers. 

4.  In  serious  discourse,  similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  low 
or  mean  objects. 

5.  In  describing  what  is  low  or  trivial,  similes  should  not  be 
drawn  from  great  or  subHme  objects. 

Rhetorical  Value.  —  The  simile  aids  the  understanding  in 
illustrating  the  thought  by  a  comparison  to  something  already 
known ;  it  impresses  the  feelings  by  the  surprise  of  finding  a  like- 
ness where  none  was  expected ;  and  it  pleases  by  the  beauty  of 
the  comparison. 

The  Metaphor. 

The  Metaphor  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  likeness  between 
two  objects  is  implied. 

Of  the  two  objects  or  thoughts,  one  is  well  known  and  the 
other  is  unknown ;  and  the  former  is  applied  to  explain  the  latter ; 
thus,  "  The  French  Revolution  was  the  whirlwind  of  the  universe." 
Here  the  well-known  power  and  effects  of  the  "  whirlwind  "  are 
used  to  give  a  vivid  idea  of  the  terribly  destructive  effects  of  the 
French  Revolution. 

Difference  between  Metaphor  and  Simile.— The  metaphor 
and  the  simile  both  contain  a  comparison,  but  in  the  latter  the 
resemblance  between  the  things  compared  is  formally  expressed, 
while  in  the  former  it  is  only  implied.  If  we  say  ''  He  upholds 
the  state  as  the  pillar  upholds  the  edifice,"  we  make  a  comparison 
by  a  simile  ;  but  if  we  say  "  He  is  the  pillar  of  the  state,"  we  make 
a  comparison  by  a  metaphor. 

Rhetorical  Value.  —  i.  The  metaphor  is  often  of  great  value 
in  explaining  what  is  unknown.     For  example,  the  Scriptures  in 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  2O9 

attempting  to  describe  to  us  the  abode  of  the  blest,  speak  of  it  as 
a  "city."  We  know  what  a  city  is  and  our  knowledge  is  at  once 
transferred  to  explain  the  unknown.  2.  It  is  also  employed  to 
deepen  the  impression  on  our  feelings  by  adding  a  force  and 
energy  that  could  not  be  secured  by  plain  language ;  as,  "  The 
news  was  a  dagger  to  his  heart."  3.  Again,  it  may  give  an  agree- 
able surprise  and  enable  us  to  clothe  abstract  ideas  with  life,  form, 
color,  and  motion. 

Rules  for  the  use  of  Metaphors.  —  The  rules  given  for 
similes  hold  also  for  metaphors.  The  following  additional  ones 
are  also  to  be  observed  :  — 

1.  A  metaphorical  and  a  literal  statement  should  not  be  used 
in  close  connection ;  as,  "  In  peace  thou  art  the  gale  of  spring ; 
in  war,  a  valiant  soldier." 

2.  Metaphors  from  different  subjects  should  not  be  combined 
in  the  same  expression ;  as,  "  His  parents  wished  to  pave  his  way 
over  the  stormy  sea  of  temptation."  Such  a  combination  is 
usually  called  a  Mixed  Metaphor. 

3.  Metaphors  should  not  be  carried  too  far ;  if  too  many  of 
the  minor  points  of  resemblance  are  dwelt  upon,  the  reader  feels 
the  pleasure  begin  to  cloy. 

4.  Metaphors  should  not  be  multiplied  to  excess. 

5.  Metaphors  should  be  natural  and  becoming  and  worthy  of 
the  subject.  Thus  the  inappropriateness  of  the  following  must 
strike  every  one.  "That  wonderful  old  furnace  (a  volcano) 
where  the  hand  of  God  works  the  bellows." 

Metaphors  Expanded.  —  Every  simile  may  be  compressed 
into  a  metaphor,  and  every  metaphor  may  be  expanded  into  a 
simile.  The  metaphor  is  a  briefer,  stronger,  and  more  lively 
figure  than  the  simile.  Hence,  as  poetry  loves  to  dwell  on  the 
pleasing,  the  simile  is  better  adapted  to  it,  while  the  vigorous  and 
animated  comparison  of  the  metaphor  is  more  suited  to  prose. 
Examples.  —  Metaphor  :  "The  ship  ploughs  the  sea." 
Simile  :  "  As  the  plough  turns  up  the  land  so  the  ship  acts  on 
the  sea." 


2IO  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Metaphor  :  "  Harrowing  care." 

Simile  :  "  Care  that  affects  the  mind  as  the  harrow  does  the  soil." 

Allusion,  or  reference  to  some  well-known  fact,  fable,  custom, 

or  incident,  is  often  embodied   in   a   metaphor  or  a  simile ;    as, 

•'That  body  is  an  Augean  stable  of  corruption." 

Allegory. 

The  Allegory  consists  of  a  series  of  metaphors  so  connected 
as  to  form  a  story,  each  step  of  which  is  symbolic  of  something 
else.  A  well-known  example  is  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress."  In  it 
the  difficulties  of  the  Christian  life  are  symbolized  and  simplified 
by  being  depicted  under  the  figure  of  the  difficulties  of  a  journey 
from  the  City  of  Destruction  to  the  New  Jerusalem. 

The  Parable  and  Fable  are  forms  of  Allegory. 

A  Parable  is  a  short  allegory  in  which  some  religious  or  moral 
truth  is  taught  or  illustrated.  The  incident  or  event  may  be  real 
or  supposed  and  is  usually  drawn  from  nature  or  human  life.  For 
examples,  see  "The  Sower,"  or  the  "Ten  Talents." 

A  Fable,  or  Apologue,  is  a  kind  of  allegory  in  which  the  story 
or  incident  that  points  or  illustrates  a  moral,  is  supposed  to  be 
spoken  by  some  animal  or  inanimate  object. 

Rhetorical  Value.  —  As  these  figures  contain  an  incident  or 
story  each  possesses,  in  addition  to  the  usual  advantages  of  a 
metaphor,  the  clearness  of  the  concrete  and  the  interest  of  a  plot. 

Personification. 

Personification  consists  in  attributing  life  and  mind  to  inani- 
mate things. 

1.  The  lowest  form  of  personification  is  produced  with  adjec- 
tives, and  consists  in  ascribing  the  qualities  of  living  beings  to 
inanimate  objects  ;  as,  "  the  raging  storm  "  ;  "  the  angry  sea  "  ; 
"  the  hungry  shore  "  ;  "  the  smiling  land." 

2.  The  next  higher  form  of  personification  is  produced  with 
verbs,  and  consists  in  making  inanimate  objects  perform  the  actions 
of  living  beings  ;  as,  "  The  very  walls  will  cry  out  against  it." 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  211 

3.  The  highest  form  consists  in  ascribing  to  the  objects  human 
feehngs  and  purposes,  and  with  distinction  of  gender ;  as,  "  Earth 
felt  the  wound."  This  form  of  personification  is  sometimes  com- 
bined with  apostrophe  ;  as,  "  Put  on  thy  beautiful  garments,  O 
Jerusalem,  the  holy  city." 

All  Metaphors.  —  All  forms  of  personification  are  metaphors, 
but  they  are  called  personifications  because  objects  are  raised  to 
or  towards  persons. 

Rhetorical  Value.  —  The  rhetorical  value  of  the  figure  arises 
from  the  fact  that  inanimate  things  are  invested  with  a  greater 
interest  as  they  rise  in  dignity  and  become  endowed  with  personal 
quaUties  that  lead  us  to  have  a  fellow-feeling  with  them. 


EXERCISE   XLV. 

Similes. 
Direction.  —  Find  resemblances  to  complete  the  comparisons. 

1.  He  IS  as  silent  as  .  .  . 

2.  His  heart  is  as  weak  as  .  .  . 

3.  Her  life  was  as  dull  as  .  .  . 

4.  Her  tears  flowed  like  .  .  . 

5.  He  spoke  with  a  voice  like  .  .  , 

6.  The  tongue  is  like  .   .  . 

7.  The  righteous  shall  flourish  as  .   .   . 

8.  The  horizon  blazed  like  ... 

9.  The  huntsmen  swept  by  like  .  .  . 

10.  His  hounds  were  as  fierce  as  .   .  . 

11.  Their  jaws  were  foaming  like  .  .  , 

12.  Her  eyes  were  as  blue  as  .  .  . 

13.  The  muscle  of  his  arm  was  as  strong  as  .  .  . 

14.  The  wounded  heart  like  .  .  .  soon  closes. 

15.  The  people  flew  before  the  savage  foe  like  .  .  . 

16.  Life  passes  by  like   .  .  . 
I  7.  Pleasures  are  like  .  .  . 


212  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  LXVI. 

Similes. 

Direction.  —  Substitute  plain  language  for  the  figurative  and  describe  the 
efl'ect. 

1.  Their  eyes  were  like  embers. 

2.  I  will  make  thy  seed  as  the  dust  of  the  earth. 

3.  Unstable  as  water,  thou  shalt  not  excel. 

4.  He  fell  as  falls  the  thunder-riven  oak. 

5.  They  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  rivers  of  water. 

6.  Like  a  bird  frightened  from  its  prey,  she  disappeared  from 
view. 

7.  Thy  smile  is  as  the  dawn  of  vernal  day. 

8.  Lakes  and  rivers  are  as  refreshing  to  the  imagination  as  to 
the  soil  through  which  they  pass. 

9.  Like  the  temples  of  the  gods,  virtue  is  venerable  even  in 
her  ruins. 

10.  The  yellow  perch  looked  like  sunbeams  in  the  water. 

11.  The  foe  retreated  like  a  wolf  untimely  scared. 

12.  These  wonderful  representations  come  and  go  like  visions 
in  a  dream. 

13.  The  gushes  of  melody  warble  along  the  roof  like  the  pure 
airs  of  heaven. 

14.  His  history  is  as  a  tale  that  is  told. 

15.  The  brand  shot  up  like  a  streamer  of  the  northern  sky. 

16.  The  agony  of  their  lamentation  was  like  a  wind  that  thrills 
all  night  in  a  waste  land. 

1 7.  Let  thy  voice  rise  like  a  fountain  for  me  night  and  day. 
iS.   The  barge  moved  off  like  some  full-breasted  swan. 

19.  Intellect  is  to  a  woman's  nature  what  her  watch-spring 
skirt  is  to  her  dress. 

20.  Whatever  comes  from  the  brain  carries  the  hue  of  the  place 
it  came  from,  and  whatever  comes  from  the  heart  carries  the  heat 
and  color  of  its  birthplace. 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  .213 

EXERCISE  LXVII. 

Metaphors. 

Direction. — Name  the  two  objects  compared,  state  the  point  of  resem- 
blance and  the  rhetorical  value  of  the  figure;  then  express  the  thought  in 
plain  language  and  estimate  the  loss. 

1 .  He  is  a  worthy  pillar  of  the  state. 

2.  He  knew  that  there  were  dark  spats  in  his  fame. 

3.  The  class  are  making  rapid  steps  in  knowledge. 

4.  This  quarrel  must  be  patched  with  cloth  of  any  color. 

5.  The  valiant  taste  death  but  once. 

6.  What  his  breast  forges,  that  his  tongue  must  vent. 

7.  Ferocity  is  the  natural  weapon  of  the  common  people. 

8.  He  was  a  cruel  and  iron-hearted  man. 

9.  Gaul  may  champ  the  bit  and  foam  in  fetters. 

10.  My  child  is  a  withered  branch  that  will  never  bear  the 
print  of  grace. 

11.  The  door  to  success  is  always  labelled  "  Push." 

12.  Procrastination  is  th    thief  of  time. 

13.  Death  is  a  debt  which  all  are  bound  to  pay. 

14.  He  intended  to  clothe  himself  with  this  power. 

15.  That  deep  and  flowing  sympathy  comes  from  the  fountains 
of  personal  suffering. 

16.  He  has  sometimes  smothered  the  child-like  simplicity  of 
Chaucer  under  the  feather-beds  of  verbiage. 

17.  Ignorance  is  the  curse  of  God,  knowledge  the  wing  where- 
with we  fly  to  heaven. 

18.  But  let  the  curtains  of  the  future  hang. 

19.  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and 
some  few  to  be  chewed  and  digested. 

20.  We  stood  together  beside  the  narrow  house  made  for  nil 
living. 

21.  He  dared  to  stem  the  tide  of  tyranny. 

22.  He  appeared  to  be  but  the  step-son  of  fortune. 


214.  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 

23.  The  kirk  was  shorn  of  its  beams. 

24.  The  most  efficient  weapon  with  which  men  can  encounter 
falsehood  is  truth. 

25.  The  French  shook  the  tree  of  Anglo-Saxon  inflections  so 
rudely  as  to  bring  down  all  its  fruit. 

EXERCISE   LXVIII. 

Mrtaphors. 
Direction.  —  Expand  the  metaphors  into  similes. 

1.  He  is  a  wolf. 

2.  I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse. 

3.  Her  disdain  stung  him  to  the  heart. 

4.  They  have  passed  happily  through  the  storms  of  life. 

5.  That  school-room  is  a  hive  of  industry. 

6.  They  reaped  a  golden  harvest. 

7.  'Tis  the  sunset  of  life  gives  me  mystical  love. 

8.  The  table  was  garlanded  with  guests. 

9.  There  was  a  lion  in  the  path. 

10.  The  hero's  ability  was  overshadowed  by  that  of  the  heroine. 

11.  The  thought  struck  my  mind. 

1 2.  The  standards  reel  to  and  fro  on  the  tossing  sea  of  bayonets. 

13.  Beauty  is  unripe  childhood's  cheat. 

14.  Life's  cup  sparkles  near  the  brim. 

15.  vSo  the  poor  child,  in  her  soul's  hunger,  began  to  nibble 
at  the  thick-rinded  fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowledge. 

16.  The  moon  threw  her  silver  mantle  over  the  darkness. 

I  7.    We  loose  our  dogs  of  war  against  our  own  countrymen. 

1 8.  The  poet  should  live  in  the  country  where  he  can  hear  the 
heart  of  nature  beat. 

19.  The  army  of  Hydcr  swept  everything  before  it. 

20.  The  clouds  have  dropped  their  garnered  fulness  down. 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  215 

EXERCISE   LXIX. 

Mixed  Metaphors. 

Direction.  —  In  these  mixed  metaphors  change  one  of  the  figures  so  as 
to  make  it  correspond  to  the  other. 

1.  To  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles. 

2.  Be  thou  a  rock  to  them  that  are  afar  upon  the  sea. 

3.  The  sharp  scythe  of  conflict  hovers  over  the  land. 

4.  "  My  friend,"  said  the  professor,  "  you  are  sailing  into  dan- 
gerous grQund." 

5.  He  shall  be  measured  in  the  government  scales. 

6.  Our  future  is  a  sealed  seed-plot. 

7.  Pillar  of  fire,  that  didst  go  before  me  to  guide  and  quicken  me. 

8.  The  chariot  of  day  peers  over  the  mountain  top. 

9.  He  stooped  to  such  lengths  of  meanness. 

10.  There  is  a  time  when  factions,  by  the  vehemence  of  their 
own  fermentation,  stun  and  disable  one  another. 

11.  A  torrent  of  superstition  consumed  the  land. 

12.  His  speech  conveyed  a  deep  impression  to  the  mind. 

13.  They  labored  hard  to  unravel  those  obscurities. 

14.  Their  knowledge  was  based  on  these  sources  of  information. 

15.  The   colonies  are  not  yet  ripe  to  bid  adieu  to  maternal 
connection. 

16.  Christ  is  the  anchor  of  our  hope,  which  reaches  beyond 
the  vale  of  death. 

1 7.  An  immortal  flame  swells  the  breast  of  that  man  who  adores 
and  is  adored. 

18.  There  is  not  a  view  of  human  nature  that  is  not  sufficient 
to  extinguish  the  seeds  of  pride. 

19.  When  the  mustang  is  caught  in  a  lasso,  all  his  struggles 
serve  only  to  rivet  his  chains. 

20.  I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  in  vain  that  longs  to  launch 
into  a  bolder  strain. 

21.  I  smell  a  rat ;  I  see  it  brewing  in  the  distance  ;  and  I  shall 
nip  it  in  the  bud. 


2l6  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 

EXERCISE   LXX. 

Metaphors. 

Direction.  —  Explain  the  allusions  in  tlie  figures,  and  rewrite  the  sentences 
in  plain  language. 

1.  These  politicians  are  after  the  loaves  and  fishes. 

2.  He  falls  Hke  Lucifer,  never  to  hope  again. 

3.  The  sword  of  Damocles  hangs  over  his  head. 

4.  He  has  not  troubled  the  waters  of  phonetic  spelling  of  late. 

5.  He  listened  to  the  song  of  the  Sirens,  yet  glided  by  the 
fatal  shore. 

6.  When  a  man  is  popular,  people   climb  up  into  sycamore 
trees  to  see  him. 

7.  Before  this  paper  reaches  its  readers,  Gladstone  may  have 
crossed  the  Rubicon. 

8.  They  are  simply  throwing  a  tub  to  the  whale. 

9.  He  followed  the  profession  of  law,  but  at  a  great  distance. 

10.  The  happy  parents  entertained  an  angel  unawares. 

11.  He  went  into  the  highways  and  hedges  of  thought,  and 
compelled  figures  to  come  in. 

12.  Nature  does  not  require  those  who  enter  her  University  to 
subscribe  to  any  Test  Act. 

EXERCISE   LXXI. 

Metaphors. 
Direction.  —  Express  the  thoughts  in  metaphorical  language. 
I.    He  is  very  poor. 


He  is  exceedingly  foolish. 

The  school-room  is  a  busy  place. 

He  was  a  brave  man. 

He  tried  to  help  his  friends. 

They  have  started  a  new  project. 

He  has  failed  in  business. 

He  is  now  enjoying  the  result  of  his  toil. 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  21/ 

9.    Our  body  is  so  formed  that  it  is  easily  put  out  of  order. 

10.  Her  brow  was  wrinkled. 

11.  Suspicion  is  a  source  of  great  unhappiness. 

12.  The  sanguine  man  sometimes  finds  that  he  is  sadly  dis- 
appointed (dreams). 

13.  Guilt  and  misery  are  inseparably  joined  (wed). 

14.  The  career  of  many  a  conqueror  has  been  marked  by 
cruelty  (path  .  .  .  stained  .  .  .  blood). 

15.  They  nobly  gave  up  everything  for  the  sake  of  their 
country  (altar). 

16.  They  have  begun  a  new  business  (embark). 

17.  After  a  few  day's  illness,  he  unexpectedly  died. 

18.  I  shall  not  attempt  to  estimate  the  opposition  that  is 
(force  .  .  .  arrayed)   against  the  ministry. 

19.  Providence  has  wisely  ordained  that  we  shall  not  know  the 
future  (sealed). 

20.  Calumnious  reports  are  often  circulated  about  those  whose 
lives  are  pure  (aim  .  .  .  arrows). 

EXERCISE  LXXII. 

Similes  and  Metaphors. 

Direction.  —  Inquire  into  the  appropriateness  of  the  similes  and  meta- 
phors. Give  reasons  for  your  conclusions,  and  substitute  suitable  figures  for 
any  you  reject. 

1.  The  storms  of  seventy  winters  have  passed  over  his  head. 

2.  A  Western  preacher,  in  paraphrasing  the  words,  "  The  Lord 
hath  made  bare  his  mighty  arm,"  said,  "The  Lord  rolled  up  his 
sleeves,  and  buckled  into  the  work." 

3.  The  vessel  that  was  launched  to-day  shot  broadside  into 
the  water  Hke  an  arrow  from  a  well-strung  bow. 

4.  The  dew  shall  weep  thy  fall  to-night,  O  Flower  ! 

5.  Some  lay  brethren  think  that  the  old  rule  of  paying  your 
money  and  taking  your  choice  should  hold  in  the  matter  of  clergy- 
men as  well  as  neckties. 


2l8  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

6.  Her  brow  was  ploughed  by  age  and  sorrow. 

7.  Having  tasted  the  food  of  confiscation,  the  favorites  became 
ravenous. 

S.    Method  is  the  mother  of  memory. 

9.  Hadst  thou  ruled  thy  unreasonable  passion,  thy  father  would 
not  have  been  left  a  solitary  oak  that  throws  its  shattered  and 
unprotected  branches  against  the  full  sweep  of  the  tempest. 

10.  The  thunder  reverberated  through  the  rocks  like  some 
great  organ  pipe. 

1 1.  His  sermon  was  a  crazy  quilt  of  rhetoric. 

12.  In  that  speech  there  were  fragments  where  the  muscular 
arm  showed  through  the  sleeve. 

13.  Politics  is  usually  looked  upon  as  a  career  which  means 
mud  up  to  the  knees  and  filth  up  to  the  elbows. 

EXERCISE  LXXIII. 

,  Personification. 

Direction.  —  State  what  you  think  is  gained  in  each  case  by  the  personi- 
fication. 

1.  The  mountains  sing  together,  the  hills  rejoice  and  clap  their 
hands. 

2.  Every  flower  enjoys  the  air  it  breathes. 

3.  And  Freedom  shrieked  when  Kosciusko  fell. 

4.  The  mountains  saw  Thee,  O  Lord,  and  trembled. 

5.  What  ailed  thee,  O  sea,  that  thou  fledest?  and  thou,  O  Jor- 
dan, that  thou  wast  driven  back  ? 

6.  The  depth  saith.  It  is  not  in  me  :  and  the  sea  saith,  It  is 
not  in  me. 

7.  The  earth  was  laughing  after  the  shower  passed  by. 

8.  Fell  thirst  and  famine  scowl. 

9.  The  hungry  sea  was  roaring. 

10.  Morning  looked  on  the  dreadful  scene. 

1 1 .  Pain  and  pleasure  were  at  his  elbow,  telling  what  to  do  and 
what  to  avoid. 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  2ig 

12.  Nature  is  still  continuing  her  patient  education  of  us  all  in 
her  great  University. 

13.  Tongue  was  the  lawyer  and  argued  the  case. 

14.  Blasphemy's  loud  scream  strove  with  that  sweet  music  of 
deliverance. 

15.  Herein  fortune  shows  herself  more  kind  than  is  her  custom. 

16.  The  ship  flew  over  the  angry  waves. 

1 7.  The  conscious  water  saw  its  Lord  and  blushed. 
iS.    The  aspen  heard  them,  and  she  trembled. 

19.  Write  a  sentence  containing  each  of  the  following  objects 
personified. 

A  ship. 
The-  sun. 
Spring. 

20.  Detail  point  by  point  the  features  in  the  life  01  man  that 
are  depicted  in  the  Vision  of  Mirza.^ 

21.  State  what  advantages  such  a  method  of  picturing  life  has 
over  plain  description. 

22.  Name  other  Allegories  that  you  have  read,  and  make  notes 
on  their  rhetorical  value. 

23.  Quote  a  Parable  from  the  New  Testament,  and  state  why 
the  Parable  is  an  eff"ective  way  of  teaching  moral  truths. 

24.  Relate  any  Fable  you  have  read,  and  tell  why  instruction 
may  be  forcibly  given  by  means  of  a  Fable. 

25.  Distinguish  as  clearly  as   you   can   between   Allegory  and 
Parable,  Allegory  and  Fable,  Parable  and  Fable. 


Youth. 

Sleep. 

Morning. 

Earth. 

A  horse. 

A  tree. 

220  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XXXVII. 

FIGURES   OF   SPEECH.  —  METONYMY. 

Metonymy  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  an  object  is  presented 
to  the  mind,  not  by  naming  it,  but  by  naming  something  else  that 
readily  suggests  it. 

Kinds  of  Metonymy.  —  Owing  to  the  varied  relations  by  which 
things  may  be  connected,  there  are  many  kinds  of  this  figure. 
The  most  common  relations  that  give  rise  to  metonymy  are  :  — 

1.  Cause  and  effect ;  as,  "  He  writes  a  beautiful  hand  "  (hand- 
writing) . 

2.  Effect  and  cause  ;  as,  "  There  is  death  (something  that  causes 
death)  in  the  pot." 

3.  Container  and  the  thiijg  contained ;  as,  "  The  kettle  (the 
water)  boils." 

4.  Sign  and  thing  signified;  as,  "The  bullet  (war)  is  giving 
place  to  the  ballot"  (the  organizations  of  peace). 

5.  Instrument  and  agent ;  as,  "  He  scattered  parliaments  with 
the  breath  of  his  mouth  "  (powerful  influence). 

6.  Material  and  thing  made  out  of  it;  as,  "The  marble  (mon- 
ument) speaks." 

7.  An  author  and  his  work ;  as,  "  They  have  Moses  and  the 
prophets"  (their  writings). 

8.  Abstract  and  concrete ;  as,  "  Youth  and  beauty  (the  young 
and  the  beautiful)  shall  be  laid  in  the  dust." 

9.  Progenitor  and  posterity ;  as,  "  Hear,  O  Israel  "  (descend- 
ants of  Israel). 

10.  Name  of  an  object  and  the  object  that  inspires  it;  as, 
"That  is  my  delight"  (the  cause  of  my  delight). 

Rhetorical  Value.  —  Metonymy  presents  an  object,  not  by 
naming  it,  but  by  suggesting  it  through  some  relation,  and  thus 
adds  vividness,  variety,  and  beauty  to  style. 


figures  of  speech.  221 

Synecdoche. 

Synecdoche  is  a  figure  of  speech  by  which  the  name  of  a  part 
is  applied  to  the  whole,  or  that  of  the  whole  to  a  part. 

The  most  common  and  useful  kinds  of  synecdoche  consist  in 
putting  — 

1.  The  part  for  the  whole  ;  as, "  She  has  seen  sixteen  summers  " 
(years). 

2.  The  species  for  the  genus;  as,  "He  is  a  cut-throat"  (mur- 
derer). 

3.  An  individual  for  the  species ;  as,  "  He  is  a  Crcesus  "  (a  very 
rich  man).  Putting  a  proper  name  for  a  common,  or  a  common 
for  a  proper,  is  called  also  Antonoinasia. 

4.  One  of  the  characteristics  of  a  person  for  the  person's  name  ; 
as,  "The  covenants  of  the  Almighty." 

5.  The  whole  for  the  part;  as,  "The  arrow  struck  me"  (my 
arm). 

6.  The  genus  for  the  species  ;  as,  "  He  is  a  wretched  creature  " 
(man). 

7.  A  definite  number  for  an  indefinite  ;  as,  "  Ten  thousand  fleets 
sweep  over  thee  in  vain." 

Rhetorical  Value.  —  As  we  grasp  a  part  of  a  thing  more  easily 
than  the  whole,  this  figure  enables  us  to  put  something  that  we  are 
familiar  with  for  something  that  we  do  not  know  so  well,  and 
thereby  adds  vividness,  clearness,  and  force  to  the  expression. 

Metonymy  and  Synecdoche.  —  In  metonymy,  an  object  is 
suggested  by  mentioning  some  prominent  property,  quality,  or 
characteristic  ;  in  the  synecdoche,  by  naming  some  part. 

Metonymy  and  Metaphor.  —  Each  of  these  figures  presents 
an  object  to  the  mind  by  naming  something  else  ;  but  the  meta- 
phor implies  a  comparison  between  what  is  said  and  what  is 
meant,  while  the  metonymy  does  not,  but  mentions  something 
which  is  so  related  as  readily  to  suggest  the  idea  intended. 


222  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


Hyperbole. 


Hyperbole  is  exaggeration.  It  represents  things  as  greater  or 
less,  better  or  worse,  than  they  really  are.  Thus,  "  The  waves  ran 
mountains  high." 

Apostrophe. 

Apostrophe  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  the  speaker  turns  away 
from  his  subject  to  address  some  object  he  imagines  to  be  present. 

If  the  object  is  something  inanimate  it  is  personified  by  the 
address. 

Exa77iple.  —  "O  thou  bright  moon!  thou  object  of  my  first 
love  !  thou  shalt  not  escape  an  invocation,  although  perchance  at 
this  very  moment  some  varlet  sonneteer  is  prating  of  '  the  boy 
Endymion  '  and  '  thy  silver  bow.'  " 

Personification  and  Apostrophe. — When  inanimate  objects 
are  addressed,  they  are,  of  course,  personified  ;  but  the  difference 
between  these  two  figures  consists  in  the  address.  Objects  per- 
sonified are  carried  up  towards,  or  to  the  rank  of  persons,  but  they 
are  not  addressed  ;  objects  apostrophized,  whether  persons  or  per- 
sonified things,  are  addressed. 

Rhetorical  Value.  — The  rhetorical  value  of  the  figure  consists 
in  giving  variety  and  surprise  by  the  unexpected  form,  and  anima- 
tion by  the  vivid  conception  of  the  presence  of  something  known 
to  be  absent. 

For  Vision,  see  page  121. 

EXERCISE   LXXIV. 

Metonymy. 

Direction.  —  State  the  relation  upon  which  each  of  the  metonymies  is 
based.  Express  the  idea  in  plain  language  and  characterize  the  effect  of  the 
change. 

1.  He  drank  only  one  bottle. 

2.  He  addressed  the  chair. 

3.  The  whole  country  was  in  arms. 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  223 

4.  Princes  and  lords  are  but  the  breath  of  kings. 

5.  What  land  so  barbarous  as  to  allow  this? 

6.  Maggie  was  still  panting  for  happiness. 

7.  Lift  your  thoughts  from  earth  to  heaven. 

8.  It  cost  much  blood  and  treasure  to  carry  the  town, 

9.  Her  brain  was  busy  with  schemes  of  flight. 

10.  The  sword  and  the  purse  support  the  nation. 

1 1 .  Do  you  favor  the  red  rose  or  the  white  ? 

12.  The  farmer  exchanged  the  plough  for  the  counter. 

13.  The  cottage  excels  the  palace  in  piety. 

14.  His  gray  hairs  saved  him  from  death. 

15.  Youth  should  always  reverence  age. 

16.  There  is  death  in  the  cup. 

I  7.  The  host  saw  the  mantling  bliss  go  round. 

18.  The  grave  mingles  the  dust  of  enemies. 

19.  There  is  but  a  step  from  the  throne  to  the  grave. 


EXERCISE  LXXV. 

METONViMY. 

Direction.  —  Recast  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  introduce  one  or 
more  metonymies.     Point  out  the  rhetorical  gain. 

1.  Why  should  mortal  man  be  proud? 

2.  The  sun  is  beginning  to  adorn  the  mountain  tops, 

3.  The  hedges  are  white  with  the  flowers  of  spring. 

4.  He  was  emperor  when  Rome  was  most  powerful. 

5.  He  has  dishonored  the  judgeship. 

6.  Old  people  seldom  form  very  ardent  friendships. 

7.  All  the  witty  people  in  the  city  were  present. 

8.  The  wealthy  and  the  great  are  not  free  from  care. 

9.  The  horsemen  plied  the  whip  and  sword. 

10.  We  are  trying  to  do  what  the  people  of  Holland  have 
failed  to  accomplish. 

1 1 .  He  has  read  the  works  of  Josephus  through  and  through- 


224  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

12.  The  virtuous  as  well  as  the  vicious  must  suffer  the  con- 
sequences of  foolish  acts. 

13.  The  most  illustrious  men  are  sometimes  defeated  at  the 
polls  through  party  feeling. 

14.  No  people  are  so  barbarous  as  to  allow  such  an  injustice. 

15.  The  bullets  from  the  enemy's  guns  fell  in  showers. 

16.  The  victuals  are  prepared. 

17.  The  class  are  now  reading  Scott's  works. 

18.  Old  people  should  always  be  reverenced  by  the  young. 

19.  His  sword  was  the  cause  of  terror  to  every  opponent. 

20.  By  his  powerful  influence,  he  scattered  all  the  enemies  oi 
the  Crown. 

EXERCISE  LXXVI. 

Synecdoche. 

Direction.  —  Point  out  the  relation  on  which  the  synecdoche  is  based. 
Express  the  idea  in  plain  language;   state  the  loss. 

1.  He  is  gone  to  tea. 

2.  A  hundred  head  of  sheep. 

3.  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold. 

4.  A  thousand  bosoms  throbbed  with  delight. 

5.  The  hand  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich. 

6.  He  was  a  lad  of  scarcely  eighteen  summers. 

7.  The  duke  is  the  Leviathan  among  all  the  creatures  of  the 
Crown. 

8.  He  left  the  protection  of  his  father's  roof. 

9.  Milton's  wife  left  his  bed  and  board. 

ID.  The  commerce  is  carried  on  by  American  bottoms. 

1 1 .  He  employs  a  score  of  hands. 

12.  The  boy  had  fewer  summers,  but  his  heart  had  outgrown 
his  years. 

13.  It  is  a  village  of  five  hundred  chimneys. 

14.  It  is  a  city  of  spires. 

15.  The  harbor  was  crowded  with  masts. 

16.  He  is  a  Hercules  at  that  work- 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH,  22  5 

17.  He  is  the  Carlyle  of  America. 

18.  For  sucli  a  crime  they  brought  the  tyrant  to  the  block. 

19.  He  is  one  of  the  most  unhappy  beings  I  know  of. 

20.  She  had  seen  but  six  winters  when  she  died. 

21.  All  things  are  open  to  the  view  of  the  Omniscient. 

22.  Twenty  sail  of  the  line  entered  the  harbor. 

23.  Hastings    fully   deserved    to    be    admitted    into    such   a 
Pantheon. 

EXERCISE  LXXVII. 

Synecdoche. 

Direction. —  Recast  the  sentences,  using  at  least  one  synecdoche. 

1.  The  object  of  his  ambition  was  money. 

2.  He  has  a  large  number  of  cattle  in  this  yard. 

3.  She  is  an  unhappy  woman. 

4.  Immense  numbers  have  made  the  attempt. 

5.  She  was  a  maiden  of  sixteen  years. 

6.  They  lacked  the  necessaries  of  life. 

7.  He  was  a  man  of  great  wisdom. 

8.  God  always  beholds  our  acts. 

9.  His  wealth  was  beyond  computation. 

10.  The  house  protects  us  from  the  storm. 

11.  She  is  a  very  wicked  woman. 

12.  He  is  very  quick  at  all  kinds  of  work. 

13.  Tell  the  members  the  queen  is  now  prepared. 

14.  These  murderers  should  all  be  executed. 

15.  In  that  instant  years  seemed  to  roll  over  his  mind. 

Direction. —  State  the  rhetorical  value  of  the  following  hyperboles. 

1.  You  are  musty  chaff;  and  you  are  smelt  above  the  moon. 

2.  On  the  battle-field  were  rivers  of  blood  and  hills  of  slain. 

3.  The  miller  took  the  grist  and  sent  the  farmer  home  with 
the  toll. 

4.  The  train  flew  at  lightning  speed. 


226  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

5.  They  sent  up  a  shout  that  tore  hell's  concave  and  beyond 
frighted  chaos  and  old  Night  ! 

6.  The  waves  ran  mountains  high. 

7.  Make  or  find  sentences  in  each  of  which  one  of  the  follow- 
ing subjects  is  apostrophized  :  home,  sleep,  money,  moon,  night, 
flowers,  spring,  stars,  morning,  sun,  avarice,  wine. 


LESSON    XXXVIII. 

FIGURES   OF   SPEECH.  — ANTITHESIS. 

Antithesis  consists  in  putting  in  juxtaposition  two  things  unlike, 
so  that  each  will  appear  more  striking  by  the  contrast. 

Rhetorical  Value. — The  effect  of  this  figure  arises  chiefly 
from  the  fact  that  an  object  or  idea  appears  most  striking  when 
it  stands  side  by  side  with  its  opposite.  White  appears  whiter 
when  bordered  with  black ;  sound  seems  louder  when  followed  by 
silence.  If,  therefore,  we  wish  to  give  a  thought  special  emphasis, 
we  can  employ  no  more  effective  method  than  to  place  it  in  contrast 
with  its  opposite. 

Examples.  —  "To  be  a  blessing,  and  not  a  curse."  "The 
prodigal  robs  his  heir,  the  miser  robs  himself." 

Rule.  —  In  antithesis  the  contrasted  ideas  should  be  expressed 
by  similar  constructions  ;  nouns  should  be  contrasted  with  nouns, 
adjectives  with  adjectives,  verbs  with  verbs,  and  so  on  ;  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  words  in  the  contrasted  clauses  should  be  as 
nearly  alike  as  possible  ;  as,  — 

"  Flattery  brings  friends  ;  truth  brings  foes." 

"  Enemies  in  war  ;  in  peace,  friends," 

"  Forewarned,  forearmed." 

"  Fit  the  same  intellect  to  a  man,  and  it  is  a  bow-string ;  to  a 
woman,  and  it  is  a  harp-string." 


figures  of  speech.  22/ 

Epigram. 

The  Epigram  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  whicli  there  is  a  conflict 
or  contradiction  between  the  literal  meaning  of  the  words  and  the 
meaning  really  intended.     Thus,  "  The  child  is  father  of  the  man." 

Its  Relation. — The  epigram  is  akin  to  the  antithesis  on  the 
one  hand  and  to  the  pun  on  the  other.  The  element  of  contrariety 
in  the  epigram,  however,  differs  from  that  in  the  antithesis.  In  the 
former,  it  exists  between  the  real  and  the  apparent  meaning  of  the 
words,  while  in  the  latter,  it  is  between  the  things  that  are  brought 
together.  Epigram  often  consists  mainly  in  taking  words  in 
different  senses ;  in  this  respect  it  resembles  the  pun,  which  turns 
entirely  upon  using  words  in  a  double  meaning.  Thus,  Home 
Tooke  said  of  the  poor  poets :  "  We  may  well  be  called  a  republic 
of  letters  for  there  is  not  a  sovereign  among  us." 

Euphemism. 

Euphemism  is  a  softened  way  of  saying  what  would  be  dis- 
agreeable or  offensive  if  told  in  plain  language.  It  is  usually  based 
on  some  other  figure,  as  synecdoche,  metonymy,  or  metaphor. 
Thus,  "  He  fell  asleep,"  may  be  used  for  "  He  died." 

Irony. 

Irony  is  language  which  taken  literally  expresses  the  contrary  of 
what  is  meant.  The  real  drift  of  the  speaker  is  seen  in  his  tone  or 
manner.  Thus,  Elijah  said  to  the  prophets  of  Baal,  "  Cry  aloud 
for  he  is  a  god." 

Rhetorical  Value.  — These  figures  by  stating  not  what  is  meant, 
but  something  else  which  suggests  it,  produce  a  liveUer  impression 
than  does  the  direct  statement.  Moreover,  the  surprise,  arising 
from  finding  that  words  may  convey  a  meaning  so  different  from 
that  which  they  literally  bear,  or  one  so  skilfully  interwoven  with 
it,  interests  and  delights  the  reader. 

For  Interrogation  and  Climax,  see  pages  120,  121. 


228  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  LXXVIII. 

Antitheses. 

Direction.  —  Point  out  the  words  that  denote  the  objects,  actions,  qualities, 
or  circumstances  contrasted;  and  recast  the  sentences  without  using  the  anti- 
theses. 

1.  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand 
and  my  heart  to  this  vote. 

2.  At  his  touch,  crowns  crumbled  and  beggers  reigned. 

3.  She  is  a  help,  not  a  hindrance  to  her  mother. 

4.  As  when  a  husband  or  a  lap-dog  dies. 

5.  Every  man  would  live  long,  but  no  man  would  be  old. 

6.  If  you  regulate  your  desires  according  to  the  standard  of 
nature,  you  will  never  be  poor ;  if  according  to  the  standard  of 
opinion,  you  will  never  be  rich. 

7.  The  rich  man  complains  aloud  ;  the  poor  man  repines  in  secret. 

8.  They  that  sow  in  tears  shall  reap  in  joy. 

9.  He  loves  the  whole  human  family,  and  hates  to  see  the  least 
member  of  it  injured. 

10.  As  we  wax  hot  in  faction,  in  battle  we  grow  cold. 

Direction.  —  Point  out  any  violations  of  the  rule  given  for  Antithesis,  and 
rewrite  the  sentences  so  as  to  make  the  figure  as  directed. 

11.  Better  reign  in  hell,  than  be  in  the  condition  of  a  servant 
in  heaven. 

12.  Fools  rush  where  angels  would  be  afraid  to  venture. 

13.  The  battle  of  Sadowa  was  won  by  the  schoolmaster,  and 
the  battle  of  Sedan  was  lost  because  the  people  are  not  so  well 
educated  (ignorance). 

14.  If  the  end  brings  me  out  right,  what  is  said  against  me  is  of 
no  account ;  if  in  the  end  I  am  wrong,  ten  angels  swearing  I  was 
right  would  make  no  difference. 

15.  My  people  are  to  do  what  they  please,  and  it  is  agreed  that 
I  shall  do  what  pleases  me. 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  229 

1 6.  I  would  rather  die  after  having  spoken  after  my  manner, 
than  speak  in  your  manner  and  hve. 

1 7.  Kings  will  be  tyrants  from  policy  when  those  who  are  under 
them  are  rebellious  from  principle. 

18.  If  you  wish  to  make  a  man  rich,  study  not  to  increase  his 
stores,  but  that  his  desires  may  be  diminished. 

19.  If  in  the  morn  of  life  you  remember  God,  you  will  not  be 
forgotten  by  Him  in  your  latter  days. 

20.  A  blind  man  is  a  poor  man,  and  blind  a  poor  man  is ;  for 
the  former  sees  no  man,  and  the  latter  is  not  seen  by  any  one. 


EXERCISE  LXXIX. 

The  Epigram  and  other  Figures. 

Direction.  —  Name  the  figures,  rewrite  the  sentences  in  plain  language, 
and  note  the  effect. 

1.  It  was  conspicuous  by  its  absence. 

2.  Beauty,  when  unadorned,  is  adorned  the  most. 

3.  When  you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  it. 

4.  Summer  has  set  in  with  its  usual  severity. 

5.  Words  were  given  to  hide  our  thoughts. 

6.  He  is  a  disciple  of  Bacchus. 

7.  That  merchant  prince  has  stopped  payment. 

8.  You  are  laboring  under  a  mistake. 

9.  The  tall  oaks  reach  far  up  into  the  clouds. 

10.  He  appropriated  the  money  to  his  own  use. 

1 1 .  No  doubt  ye  are  the  people  and  that  wisdom  will  die  with 
you. 

12.  The  obedient  wife  commands  her  husband. 


230  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE   LXXX. 

General  Exercise  on  Figures. 

Direction.  —  Name  the  figure  or  figures  in  each  of  the  following  sentences, 
and  then  express  the  meaning  in  plain  language.  Also  point  out  and  correct 
any  errors  in  the  use  or  form  of  the  figures. 

1.  The  heavens  are  veined  with  fire. 

2.  She  was  the  favorite  lamb  of  the  teacher's  flock. 

3.  The  Lord  is  my  rock  and  my  fortress. 

4.  Man  is  the  creature  of  a  day. 

5.  Nothing  succeeds  Hke  success. 

6.  Rules  are  of  no  use  till  they  are  of  no  use. 

7.  He  could  scarcely  earn  enough    to  keep  body  and  soul 
together. 

8.  She  thought  of  her  child  as  a  flower  of  the  field  cut  down 
and  withered  in  the  midst  of  its  sweetness. 

9.  They  died  amid  their  country's  shouts  of  victory. 

10.  The  old  man  leaned  his  silver  head  against  the  breast  of 
youth. 

1 1 .  My  beloved  would  shame  the  full  moon  and  cause  the 
evening  star  to  hide  its  face. 

12.  The  keen  morning  air  bites  our  face  and  hands. 

13.  A  cloud  lay  cradled  near  the  setting  sun. 

14.  The  mountains  and  the  valleys  their  joyous  voices  raise. 

15.  The  sun  smiled  far  over  the  summer  sea. 

16.  In  peace  there's  nothing  so  becomes  a  man  as  mild 
behavior  and  humility ;  but  when  the  blast  of  war  blows,  let  us 
be  tigers  in  our  fierce  deportment. 

1 7.  Fair  laughs  the  morn  and  soft  the  zephyr  blows. 

18.  His  feet  are  nearing  the  grave. 

19.  I  saw  their  thousand  years  of  snow. 

20.  He  knocks  down  a  dinner  with  his  gun  twice  or  thrice 
a  week. 

21.  Age  shakes  Athena's  tower,  but  spares  gray  Marathon. 


I'IGURES    OF    SPEECH.  23T 

22.  Solitude  sometimes  is  best  society. 

23.  There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men,  which,  taken  at  the 
flood,  leads  on  to  fortune. 

<.  24.   A  friend  cannot  be   known  in  prosperity,  and  an  enemy 
cannot  be  hidden  in  adversity. 

25.  To  spend  too  much  time  in  studies  is  sloth;  to  use  them 
too  much  for  ornament,  is  affectation. 

26.  'Twould  scald  my  tongue  to  spit  out  your  hated  name. 

27.  Your  absence  of  mind  we  have  borne,  till  your  presence  ot 
body  came  to  be  called  in  question  by  it. 

>•  28.    I  shall  watch  your  pen  to  see  if  it  is  consecrated  to  the  state. 

29.  The  legendary  age  is  a  past  that  was  never  present. 

30.  I  love  a  cup  of  hot  wine  with  not  a  drop  of  allaying  Tiber 
in  it. 

31.  This  noble  passion,  child  of  integrity,  hath  from  my  soul 
wiped  the  black  scruples. 

-  32.    I  think  our  country  sinks  beneath  the  yoke. 

-  ^^.    Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown. 

34.  He  remained  too  long  under  ^the  influence  of  the  views 
which  he  had  imbibed  from  the  board. 

,  35.    An  upright  minister  asks  what  recommends  a  man;  a  cor- 
rupt minister,  who. 

36.  This  prior,  they  say,  loves  the  wine-cup  and  the  bugle- 
horn  better  than  bell  and  book. 

3  7.  What  saw  the  winter  moon  that  night  as  its  beams  struggled 
through  the  rain? 

38.  Tin  Love  and  Joy  look  round  and  call  the  earth  their  own. 

39.  I  am  a  young  man  with  a  very  old  pension ;  he  is  an  old 
mafl  with  a  very  young  pension  :  that  is  all. 

40.  A  yell  that  rent  the  firmament  from  all  the  town  arose. 

41.  That  heart  never  melted  at  the  concourse  of  sweet  sounds. 

42.  The  credulous  multitude  consisted  of  women  of  both  sexes. 

43.  If  you  can  get  along  with  people  who  carry  n  certificate  in 
their  faces  that  their  goodness  is  so  great  as  to  make  them  miser- 
able, your  children  cannot. 


232  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

44.  The  world  is  the  chess-board,  the  pieces  are  the  phenomena 
of  the  Universe,  the  rules  of  the  game  are  the  laws  of  nature. 

45.  Love  though  deep  as  the  sea  will  wither  as  a  rose. 

46.  His  cup  had  been  quaffed  too  quickly,  and  the  dregs  were 
wormwood. 

47.  The  Countess  of  Darlington  was  a  cataract  of  tallow,  with 
eyebrows  like  a  cart-wheel,  and  dim,  coaly  disks  for  eyes. 

48.  Choose  and  eat ;  there  is  life  in  the  one  and  death  in  the 
other. 

49.  He  drank  his  house  and  lot,  and  now  his  wife  and  children 
are  on  the  street. 

50.  France  was  torn  by  internal  strife. 

51.  Words  were  given  us  to  conceal  our  thoughts. 

52.  Thus  the  successors  of  the  old  Cavahers  had  turned  dema- 
gogues ;  the  successors  of  the  old  Roundheads  had  turned  courtiers. 

53.  An  ass  covered  with  gold  has  more  respect  than  a  horse 
with  a  pack  saddle. 

54.  God  made  man  in  his  own  image  ;  but  the  pubhc  is  made 
by  newspapers. 

55.  The  spring  sun  was  setting,  and  it  flung  a  crimson  flush  over 
the  blue  waters  and  white  houses. 

56.  Youth  is  a  blunder,  manhood  a  struggle,  old  age  a  regret. 

57.  Her  gay  spirits  might  revolt  at  the  dark  downward  path  of 
low  humility  suddenly  pointed  out  before  her,  and  might  cling  to 
the  sunny  regions  in  which  they  had  hitherto  revelled. 

58.  On  a  summer's  day  might  be  heard  the  appalling  sound  of 
the  birch,  as  the  master  urged  some  tardy  loiterer  along  the  flowery 
path  of  knowledge. 

59.  Compared  with  her  friend  she  is  a  rushlight  to  the  waning 
star  —  a  glowworm  to  Antares. 

60.  These  boys  will  grow  to  be  men,  and  will  drag  the  heavy 
artillery  along  the  dusty  roads  of  life. 

61.  He  knew  not  that  a  phantom  of  Wealth  had  thrown  a  golden 
hue  upon  its  waters,  nor  that  Love  had  sighed  softly  to  their  mur- 
mur, nor  that  Death  had  threatened  to  crimson  them  with  blood. 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  233 

62.  Round  thee  the  sea  flings  her  steel-bright  armor  and  shields 
thee  from  the  guile  and  hurt  of  thy  foes. 

63.  The  quick  eye  of  Clive  soon  perceived  that  the  head  of  the 
young  volunteer  would  be  more  useful  than  his  arm. 

64.  That  means  the  removal  of  hindrances  and  the  surmounting 
of  obstacles  broad  as  continents,  high  as  the  Himalayas. 

65.  It  is  not  the  crozier  spear,  but  the  sceptre. 

66.  Another  morning  came,  and  there  they  sat  ankle-deep  in 
cards. 

-•67.    His  purse  was  ever  an  assistance  to  the  men  of  letters. 
\    68.   As  the  tall  corn  bends   beneath  the  sweeping  hurricane, 
wave  succeeding  wave,  so  did  the  steel-clad  squadrons  of  the 
enemy  before  the  victorious  torrent  of  the  dashing  cavalry. 

69.  Can  any  one  study  Shakespeare  without  reaping  benefit? 

70.  Their  souls  rose  on  the  ardor  of  prayer  like  Elijah  ascend- 
ing to  heaven. 

71.  Smiles  are  the  channels  of  future  tears. 

72.  The  life  of  man  is  the  path  of  an  arrow,  which  immediately 
closes  up. 

73.  The  soft  snow  came  ;  it  seemed  as  if  nature  had  let  fall  its 
handkerchief  to  hide  the  earth. 

74.  Diligence  is  the  mother  of  good  luck,  and  God  gives  all 
things  to  industry. 

75.  We  may  be  sure  that  confidence  sat  undisturbed  upon  his 
brow. 

76.  In  the  best  of  Whittier's  poems  the  pulse  of  human  sym- 
pathy beats  more  strongly  than  in  any  of  Longfellow's  songs. 

77.  If  I  could  shake  off  but  one  seven  years  from  these  old 
arms  and  legs,  I  would  go  with  thee  every  foot. 

78.  His  heart's  his  mouth  :   what  his  breast  forges,  that  his 
tongue  must  vent. 

79.  Time  writes  no  wrinkles  on  thine  azure  brow. 


234  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XXXIX. 

THE   QUALITIES   OF   STYLE. 

The  properties  of  Style  studied  in  preceding  Lessons  are  called 
Elements  of  Style,  because  they  belong  pre-eminently  to  Words, 
Sentences,  and  Paragraphs,  which  are  the  mechanical  elements  of 
language.  Besides  these,  Style  possesses  other  subtler  properties, 
known  as  the  Qualities  of  Style.  Among  these  qualities  may  be 
mentioned  Perspicuity,  Picturesqueness,  Force,  Pathos,  The  Lu- 
dicrous, Melody,  Harmony,  Taste,  and  Beauty, 

These  qualities  may,  with  some  correctness,  be  classified  as 
follows  :  — 

1.  Litellectual :  Perspicuity  and  Picturesqueness  ; 

2.  Emotional:   Force,  Pathos,  The  Ludicrous  ; 

3.  Esthetic  :  Melody,  Harmony,  Taste,  Beauty. 
Perspicuity  is  the  quality  of  being  easily  understood.    It  appUes 

to  the  general  form  of  expression,  to  the  way  in  which  the  thoughts 
are  presented.  Either  simple  or  abstruse  thoughts  may  be  placed 
clearly  before  the  reader ;  yet  abstruse  thoughts  may  still  be  diffi- 
cult to  apprehend,  although  clearly  expressed  ;  and  simple  thoughts 
may  be  so  expressed  as  to  appear  confused  or  ambiguous. 

Perspicuity  may  be  gained  by  — 

I .    Simplicity,  — 

a.  In  diction,  — 

{a)   Familiar  words  convey  ideas  more  clearly  than  do 

those  that  are  seldom  heard. 
{b)    Concrete  terms  call  up  more  definite  ideas  than  do 

abstract. 
(<:)    Particular  terms,  likewise,  are  always  more  striking 

than  general. 

b.  In  structure,  — 

{a)   Of  sentences,  {b)  of  paragraphs,  {c)  of  the  plan  of 
the  discourse. 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  235 

c.  In  figures  of  speech.  Figures  which  are  simple  and 
familiar,  but  not  trite,  are  object  lessons  to  the  mind. 

The  following  sentence  illustrates  how  obscurity  arises  from 
some  of  these  causes  :  — 

"  Seraphite,  the  marvellous  creature,  whose  passage  from  Matter 
to  Spirit,  from  the  Specialist  to  the  Divine  conditions,  the  theme 
of  Balzac's  genius,  in  this  case  is  intended  to  typify  the  final 
function  of  a  long  course  of  steadfast  upward  working  by  a  soul 
which  has,  by  many  re-incarnations,  won  its  way  past  the  instinc- 
tive and  abstractive  spheres  of  existence,  and  has  at  length  attained 
that  delicate  balance  of  the  material  and  spiritual  which  is  the 
last  possible  manifestation  on  the  earthly  plane." 

2.  Precision  in  the  use  of  language.  This  is  indispensable  to 
perspicuity.  The  thought  must  be  fully  and  clearly  grasped  by  the 
mind,  and  then  words  must  be  found  that  faithfully  reproduce  it. 

3.  The  employment  of  a  definite  and  apparent  plan  or  outline. 
The  reader's  attention  should  be  fixed  upon  some  central  thought 
or  bold  framework  on  which  the  entire  structure  is  made  to 
depend. 

4.  The  systematic  arrangement  of  the  subordinate  parts.  For 
example,  if  any  one  will  take  the  pains  to  examine  critically  the 
ninety-third  paper  of  the  "  Spectator,"  he  will  find  that  it  owes 
its  perspicuity  in  a  great  degree  to  the  points  mentioned  in  3 
and  4. 

The  framework  is  as  below  :  — 

Theme  :  The  proper  employment  of  leisure. 

1 .  Introduction,  — 

a.  Quotation  from  Seneca. 

b.  Men  are  also  inconsistent  in  wishing  time  away. 

c.  About   nineteen  parts  out  of  twenty,  of  leisure,  is 

wasted. 

2.  Employments  suggested, — 
a.    The  practice  of  virtue. 

I.    In  acts  of  benevolence. 

?.    In  communion  with  the  Creator. 


236  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

b.    Innocent  amusements. 

1.  The  stage. 

2.  Conversation. 

3.  The  fine  arts. 

4.  Reading. 

5.    A  skilful  use    of  the  various   means   of  illustration.     This 
may  be  — 

a.  By  example  ;  as,  "  Exclusiveness  is  deadly.     The  exclu- 

sive in  social  life  does  not  see  that  he  excludes  himself 
from  enjoyment  in  the  attempt  to  appropriate  it." 

b.  By  contrast ;  as,  "  Drawing  lots  would  be  a  prudent  and 

reasonable  method  of  appointing  the  officers  of  state, 
compared  to  a  late  disposition  of  the  secretary's 
ofhce." 

c.  By  an  anecdote  or  story ;  this  has  the  advantage  of  the 

concrete  and  of  the  particular.  Thus  :  "  Virtue  is  its 
own  reward.  Catherine  of  Livonia,  a  common  peasant 
girl,  attracted,  by  her  modest  and  virtuous  conduct, 
the  attention  of  Peter  the  Great ;  became  his  wife  ; 
and,  after  his  death,  was  proclaimed  his  successor  in 
the  Russian  Empire." 

d.  By  a  parallel  case  ;  as,  '^''  I  have  seen  eagles  in  a  cage ; 

but  their  wings  showed  lae  that  nature  never  intended 
them  to  be  there.  So  I  have  seen  man  covered  with 
the  leprosy  of  sin  and  moral  disease  ;  but  his  aspirations 
after  goodness  told  me  that  his  Creator  never  designed 
him  for  the  pest-house.     A  nobler  destiny  is  his." 

e.  By  a  judicious  use  of  the  figures  of  speech,  especially 

of  Simile,  Metaphor,  and  Antithesis. 
/.     By  employing  several   of  these  methods   in  the  same 
case.     For  example,  in  the  following,  the  idea  is  illus- 
trated (i)  by  a  contrast  in  the  nature  of  the  things; 
(2)  by  a  contrast  of  their  eifects  ;  (3)  by  figures. 

"  Mirth  I   consider  as  an  act ;   cheerfulness,  as  a 
habit  of  the  mind.      Mirth  is    short  and   transient; 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  237 

cheerfulness,  fixed  and  permanent.     Those  are  often 
raised  into  the  greatest  transports  of  mirth,  who  are 
subject    to    the    greatest    depression    of    melancholy. 
Mirth  is  hke  a  flash  of  lightning  that  breaks  through 
a  gloom  of  clouds  and  glitters  for  a  moment ;  cheer- 
fulness keeps  up  a  kind  of  daylight  in  the   mind,  and 
fills  it  with  a  steady  and  perpetual  serenity." 
6.    The  careful  observance  of  the  suggestions  made  under  the 
head  of  Clearness.     These,  if  followed,  will  enable  the  writer  to 
use  language  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  clearness  of  expression  in 
minor  details. 

PiCTURESQUENESS. 

When  a  scene,  object,  or  event  is  represented  in  language  in 
such  a  way  as  to  picture  it  to  the  mind  as  it  actually  is  or  was, 
the  style  is  said  to  be  picturesque. 

This  quality  depends  chiefly  on  the  following  considerations  :  — 

1.  A  clear  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  scene,  object,  or 
event.  The  outline  must  be  definite,  and  the  parts  must  be 
arranged  in  the  order  of  time,  place,  and  importance. 

2.  The  use  of  appropriate  epithets  and  phrases.  These  may 
introduce  — 

a.  Some  quality  whose  incidental  mention  adds  reality ;   as, 

"  Those  tireless  wheels  whose  busy  hum  never  ceases." 

b.  Some   associated  circumstance    that  tends  to  give  com- 

pleteness ;  as,  "  A  huge  sea  of  verdure  that  was  ten- 
anted by  flocks  and  herds  which  seejned  to  ivander 
unrestrained  and  unbounded  through  the  rich  pastured 

c.  Some  pleasing  feature  ;    as^  "  The  lurid  lightning  flashed 

over  the  tempest-tossed  ocq^xw^  "The  gigantic  corpses 
of  dead  trees,  decaying  on  the  leaf-strewn  soil." 

3.  A  scene  may  be  presented  more  vividly  by  mentioning  some 
striking  particulars  instead  of  using  a  general  statement ;  as, 
"They  looked  forth,  they  saw  the  river  thick  set  with  rocks, 
whtre  plunging  over  ledges,  gurgling  over  drift- logs,  darting  along 


238  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

clefts,  and  boiling  in  chasms  [instead  of  rushing  madly  o?i'],  the 
angry  waters  filled  the  solitude  with  monotonous  ravings." 

4.  The  description  of  a  scene  or  event  is  rendered  more  pic- 
turesque by  giving  the  exact  time  and  place. 

5.  Vividness  is  gained  by  viewing  a  scene  as  it  appeared  at 
a  given  point  of  time.    Thus,  Niagara  as  seen  by  moonlight. 

6.  Figures  of  speech  may  intensify  this  quality  ;  as,  "  The  cav- 
alry sTccpl  past  the  base  of  the  hill."  "  The  blackening  wave  is 
edged  with  white." 

7.  All  the  arts  that  contribute  to  perspicuity  aid  in  pictur- 
esqueness. 

8.  The  central  figure  or  main  hne  must  be  kept  well  in  the 
foreground,  and  the  filling  must  be  so  managed  as  to  be  clearly 
the  background. 

9.  The  mind  must  be  kept  on  prominent  features,  and  not  bur- 
dened with  a  multitude  of  unimportant  details. 

The  following  extract  illustrates  some  of  the  foregoing  require- 
ments :  — 

"  If  I  were  to  choose  a  spot  from  which  the  rising  or  setting 
sun  could  be  seen  to  the  greatest  possible  advantage,  it  would  be 
that  wild  path  winding  around  the  foot  of  the  high  belt  of  semi- 
circular rocks,  called  Salisbury  Crags,  and  marking  the  verge  of 
the  steep  descent  which  slopes  down  into  the  glen  on  the  south- 
eastern side  of  the  city  of  Edinburg.  The  prospect,  in  its  general 
outline,  commands  a  close-built,  high-piled  city,  stretching  itself 
out  beneath  in  a  form,  which,  to  a  romantic  imagination,  may  be 
supposed  to  represent  that  of  a  dragon ;  now,  a  noble  arm  of  the 
sea,  with  its  rocks,  isles,  distant  shores,  and  boundary  of  moun- 
tains ;  and  now,  a  fiiir  and  fertile  champaign  country,  varied  with 
hill,  dale,  and  rock,  and  skirted  by  the  picturesque  ridge  of  the 
Ventland  Mountains.  But  as  the  path  gently  circles  around  the 
v^ase  of  the  cliffs,  the  prospect,  composed  as  it  is  of  these  enchant- 
ng  and  sublime  objects,  changes  at  every  step,  and  presents  them 
blended  with,  or  divided  from,  each  other,  in  every  possible  vari- 
ety which  can  gratify  the  eye  and  the  imagination.     When  a  piece 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  239 

of  scenery  so  beautiful,  yet  so  varied,  —  so  exciting  by  its  intri- 
cacy, and  yet  so  sublime,  —  is  lighted  up  by  the  tints  of  morning 
or  of  evening,  and  displays  all  that  variety  of  shadowy  depths, 
exchanged  with  partial  brilliancy,  which  gives  character  even 
to  the  tamest  of  landscapes,  the  effect  approaches  near  to 
enchantment." 

1.  The  place  is  distinctly  located  in  the  first  sentence. 

2.  The  outline  is  clearly  defined  in  the  second  sentence. 

3.  The  suggestion  of  3  is  followed  in  "with  its  rocks,  isles, 
distant  shores,  and  boundary  of  mountains." 

4.  Notice  the  effect  of  such  epithets  and  phrases  as  "  semi- 
circular," "close-built,"  "high-piled,"  "distant,"  "fertile,"  "pic- 
turesque." 

5.  Observe  the  gain  of  showing  the  scene  when  "lighted  up 
by  the  tints  of  morning  or  of  evening." 


EXERCISE  LXXXI. 

Perspicuity  and  Picturesqueness. 

Direction.  —  Examine  the  following  extracts  with  special  reference  to  the 
qualities  of  perspicuity  and  picturesqueness.  Point  out  the  various  means  by 
which  these  qualities  have  been  secured  or  enhanced. 

I.  Oftentimes,  as  I  have  lain  swinging  on  the  water,  in  the 
swell  of  the  Chelsea  ferry  boats,  in  that  long  sharp-pointed,  black 
cradle  in  which  I  love  to  let  the  great  mother  rock  me,  I  have 
seen  a  tall  ship  glide  by  against  the  tide,  as  if  drawn  by  some 
invisible  tow-line,  with  a  hundred  strong  arms  pulling  it.  Her 
sails  hung  unfilled,  her  streamers  were  drooping,  she  had  neither 
side-wheel  nor  stern-wheel ;  still  she  moved  on,  stately  in  serene 
triumph,  as  if  with  her  own  life.  But  I  knew  that  on  the  other 
side  of  the  ship,  hidden  beneath  the  great  hulk  that  swam  so 
majestically,  there  was  a  little  toiling  steam-tug,  with  heart  of  fire 
and  arms  of  iron,  that  was  liugging  it  close,  and  dragging  it 
bravely  on  ;  and  I  knew  that  if  the  little  steam-tug  untwined  her 


240  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

arms  and  left  the  tall  ship,  it  would  wallow  and  roll  about,  and 
drift  hither  and  thither,  and  go  off  with  the  refluent  tide,  no  man 
knows  whither.  And  so  I  have  known  more  than  one  genius, 
high-decked,  full-freighted,  wide-sailed,  gay-pennoned,  that,  but 
for  the  bare  toiling  arms,  and  brave,  warm,  beating  heart  of  the 
faithful  little  wife,  that  nestled  close  in  his  shadow,  and  clung  to 
him,  so  that  no  wind  or  wave  could  part  them,  and  dragged  him 
on  against  all  the  tide  of  circumstance,  would  soon  have  gone 
down  the  stream  and  been  heard  of  no  more. 

2.  Woe  now  to  all  body-guards,  mercy  is  none  for  them  ! 
Miomaudre  de  Sainte-Marie  pleads  with  soft  words,  on  the  grand 
staircase,  descending  four  steps  to  the  soaring  tornado.  His  com- 
rades snatch  him  up  by  the  skirts  and  belts ;  literally  from  the 
jaws  of  Destruction ;  and  slam  to  their  door.  This,  also,  will 
stand  for  {q.\\  instants ;  the  panels  shivering  on  like  potsherds. 
Barricading  serves  not ;  fly  fast,  ye  body-guards  !  rabid  Insurrec- 
tion, like  the  Hell-bound  Chase,   iproaring  at  your  heels  ! 

3.  The  terror-struck  body-^jards  fly,  bolting  and  barricading; 
it  follows.  Whitherward  ?  Thr  ugh  hall  on  hall ;  woe,  now ! 
towards  the  Que:n's  suite  of  rooms,  in  the  furthest  room  of  which 
the  Queen  is  now  asleep.  Fiv  sentinels  through  that  long  suite  ; 
they  are  in  the  ante-rooms  knocking  aloud  :  "  Save  the  Queen  !  " 
Trembling  women  fall  at  their  feet  with  tears ;  are  answered  : 
"  Yes,  we  will  die  ;  save  ye  the  Queen  !  " 

4.  The  coach  stops  here  half  an  hour,  gentlemen  :  dinner  quite 
ready  !  'Tis  a  delightful  sound.  And  what  a  dinner  !  What  a 
profusion  of  substantial  delicacies  !  What  mighty  and  iris-tinted 
rounds  of  beef !  What  vast  and  marble-veined  ribs  !  What  gelat- 
inous veal  pies  !  What  colossal  hams  !  Those  are  evidently  prize 
cheeses  !  And  how  invigorating  is  the  perfume  of  those  various 
and  variegated  pickles  !  Then  the  bustle  emulating  the  plenty  ;  the 
ringing  of  bells,  the  clash  of  thoroughfare,  the  summoning  of  ubiq- 
uitous waiters,  and  the  all-pervading  feeling  of  omnipotence  from 
the  guests,  who  order  what  they  please,  to  the  landlord,  who  can 
produce  and  execute  everything  tliey  can  desire.     'Tis  a  wondrous 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  24 1 

sight.  Why  should  a  man  go  and  see  the  pyramids  and  cross  the 
desert,  when  he  has  not  beheld  York  Minster,  or  travelled  on  the 
road? 

5.  Like  Windsor  Castle,  the  palace  of  the  Alhambra  is  situated 
upon  the  northern  brow  of  a  steep  hill,  commanding  an  extensive 
prospect  over  a  beautiful  country,  and  towering  with  venerable 
aspect  above  the  City  of  Grenada.  The  sides  towards  the  citadel 
are  so  dilapidated,  or  encumbered  with  modern  buildings,  that 
very  few  traces  are  visible  of  the  ancient  external  walls.  But  the 
interior  remains  of  the  palace  are  in  tolerable  preservation,  and 
present  a  striking  picture  of  the  romantic  magnificence  of  its 
former  kings.  How  strange  does  every  object  in  this  edifice 
appear  !  how  different  from  all  that  we  are  accustomed  to  behold  ! 
Yet,  even  in  its  present  deserted  state,  we  recognize  in  architec- 
ture the  condition  of  the  owner,  the  seat  of  power,  and  the  grav- 
ity of  the  Arabian  character.  But  the  splendor  of  the  turbaned 
monarch  has  vanished,  and  the  throne  of  the  son  of  Nasr  is  filled 
by  bats  and  owls. 

6.  We  cannot  part  with  our  friends.  We  cannot  let  our  angels 
go.  We  do  not  see  that  they  only  go  out,  that  archangels  may 
come  in.  We  are  idolaters  of  the  old.  We  do  not  believe  in  the 
riches  of  the  soul,  in  its  proper  eternity  and  omnipresence.  We 
do  not  believe  there  is  any  force  in  to-day  to  rival  or  recreate  that 
beautiful  yesterday.  We  linger  in  the  ruins  of  the  old  tent,  where 
once  we  had  bread  and  shelter  and  organs,  nor  believe  that  the 
spirit  can  feed,  cover,  and  nerve  us  again.  We  cannot  again  find 
aught  so  dear,  so  sweet,  so  graceful.  But  we  sit  and  weep  in  vain. 
The  voice  of  the  Almighty  saith,  "  Up  and  onward  forevermore  ! " 
We  cannot  stay  amid  the  ruins.  Neither  will  we  rely  on  the  new ; 
and  so  we  walk  ever  with  reverted  eyes,  like  those  monsters  who 
look  backwards. 

7.  Nothing  is  more  amiable  than  true  modesty,  and  nothing  is 
more  contemptible  than  the  false.  The  one  guards  virtue,  the 
other  betrays  it.  True  modesty  is  ashamed  to  do  anything  that 
is  repugnant  to  the  rules  of  right  reason  :  false  modesty  is  ashamed 


242  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

to  do  anything  that  is  opposite  to  the  humor  of  the  company. 
True  modesty  avoids  everything  that  is  criminal,  false  modesty 
everything  that  is  unfashionable.  The  latter  is  only  a  general 
undetermined  instinct;  the  former  is  that  instinct,  limited  and 
circumscribed  by  the  rules  of  prudence  and  religion. 

8.  On  the  other  side  he  looked  down  into  a  deep  mountain 
glen,  wild,  lonely,  and  shagged,  the  bottom  filled  with  fragments 
from  the  impending  cliffs,  and  scarcely  lighted  by  the  rays  of  the 
setting  sun.  For  some  time  Rip  lay  musing  on  the  scene  ;  even- 
ing was  gradually  advancing ;  the  mountains  began  to  throw  their 
long  blue  shadows  over  the  valleys  ;  he  saw  that  it  would  be  dark 
long  before  he  could  reach  the  village,  and  he  heaved  a  sigh  when 
he  thought  of  encountering  the  terrors  of  Dame  Van  Winkle. 

9.  Manners  are  partly  factitious  ;  but,  mainly,  there  must  be 
capacity  for  culture  in  the  blood,  else  all  culture  is  vain.  Every 
man  —  mathematician,  artist,  soldier,  or  merchant  —  looks  with 
confidence  for  some  traits  and  talents  in  his  own  child  which  he 
would  not  dare  to  presume  in  the  child  of  a  stranger.  The 
Orientalists  are  very  orthodox  on  this  point.  "Take  a  thorn- 
bush,"  said  the  Emir  Abdel-Kader,  "and  sprinkle  it  for  a  whole 
year  with  water ;  it  will  yield  nothing  but  thorns.  Take  a  date- 
tree,  leave  it  without  culture,  and  it  will  produce  dates." 

10.  He  issued  from  the  hut,  followed  by  Httle  Joe,  who  kept 
fast  hold  of  his  father's  hand.  The  early  sunshine  was  already 
pouring  its  gold  upon  the  mountain-tops ;  and  though  the  valleys 
were  still  in  shadow,  they  smiled  cheerfully  in  the  promise  of  the 
bright  day  that  was  hastening  onward.  The  village,  completely 
shut  in  by  hills,  which  swelled  away  gendy  about  it,  looked  as  if  it 
had  rested  peacefully  in  the  hollow  of  the  great  hand  of  Provi- 
dence. Every  dwelling  was  distinctly  visible ;  the  litUe  spires  of 
the  two  churches  pointed  upwards,  and  caught  a  fore-glimmering 
of  brightness  from  the  sun-gilt  skies  upon  their  gilded  weather- 
cocks. Scattered  likewise  over  the  breasts  of  the  surrounding 
mountains  there  were  heaps  of  hoary  mist  or  cloud,  hovering  in 
the  gold  radiance  of  the  upper  atmosi)here.     Stepping  from  one 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  243 

to  another  of  the  clouds  that  rested  on  the  hills,  and  thence  to  the 
loftier  brotherhood  that  sailed  in  the  air,  it  seemed  almost  as  if  a 
mortal  man  might  thus  ascend  into  the  heavenly  regions.  Earth 
was  so  mingled  with  the  sky  that  it  was  a  day-dream  to  look  at  it. 
II.  The  figure  of  Rebecca  might,  indeed,  have  compared  with 
the  proudest  beauties  of  England,  even  though  it  had  been  judged 
by  as  shrewd  a  connoisseur  as  King  John.  Her  form  was  exquisitely 
symmetrical,  and  was  shown  to  advantage  by  a  sort  of  Eastern 
dress.  Her  turban  of  yellow  silk  suited  well  with  the  darkness  of 
her  complexion.  The  brilliancy  of  her  eyes,  the  superb  arch 
of  her  eyebrows,  her  well-formed  aquiline  nose,  her  teeth  as  white 
as  pearl,  and  the  profusion  of  her  sable  tresses  which,  each  arranged 
in  its  own  little  spiral-twisted  curls,  fell  down  upon  as  much  of  a 
lovely  neck  and  bosom  as  a  simarre  of  the  richest  Persian  silk, 
exhibiting  flowers  in  their  natural  colors  embossed  upon  a  purple 
ground,  permitted  to  be  visible,  —  all  these  constituted  a  combi- 
nation of  lovehness  which  yielded  not  to  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
maidens  who  surrounded  her. 

EXERCISE   LXXXIL 

Rhetorical  Analysis. 

I.    Examine  No.  i   of  Exercise  LXXXI.  under  the    following 
heads  :  — 

a.  The  choice  and  use  of  words  :  — 

(a)  Is  every  word  used  in  its  proper  sense? 

(b)  Is  every  word  the  best  that  can  be  found  to  express  the 

meaning  intended  ? 

b.  The  formation  of  the  sentences  :  — 

{a)  Is  each  of  the  sentences  so  formed  as  to  present  its 
meaning  readily  and  clearly  ? 

(b)  Does  each  sentence  deal  with  a  single  idea,  or  does  it 
give  prominence  to  its  leading  thought? 

(r)  Is  due  attention  given  to  melody  and  the  other  require- 
ments of  elegance  ? 


244  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

c.  Construction  of  paragraphs  :  — 
{a)  Is  there  a  topic  sentence  ? 

{b')    Are  the  sentences  arranged  in  logical  order? 

{c)    Are  the  sentences  smoothly  and  properly  connected? 

(a')  Does  the  paragraph  possess  unity;  that  is,  do  all  the 

sentences  bear  on  the  topic? 
{e)    Is  there   due  proportion  between  the  theme  and  the 

illustration,  or  does  the  illustration  occupy  so  much 

space  and  attract  so  much  attention  as  to  overshadow 

the  main  thought? 

d.  Figures  of  speech.     Name  the  various  figures  of  speech  that 

occur,  and  remark  on  the  rhetorical  value  of  each. 
2.    Go  through  the  Exercise,  dealing  with  each  of  the  parts  in  a 
similar  manner. 

EXERCISE  LXXXIII. 

Reproduction. 

1.  Study  No.  I  of  the  preceding  Exercise  till  you  are  thoroughly 
familiar  with  its  meaning  and  sentiment. 

2.  Then  close  the  book,  and  try  to  reproduce  them  in  other 
language. 

3.  Next  compare  your  work  with  the  original,  and  if  yours 
suffers  by  the  comparison,  try  again. 

4.  When  you  feel  satisfied  with  the  manner  in  which  you  have 
brought  out  the  sense  and  spirit  f  th  passage,  make  a  critical 
examination  of  your  work,  as  indicated  in  the  preceding  Exe»-cise. 

5.  Rewrite  with  emendations. 

Note  the  suggestions  made  in  Lesson  XXXIV. 

6.  Go  through  the  Exercise,  dealing  with  each  part  in  a  similai 
majiner. 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  245 

LESSON    XL. 

FORCE. 

Force  is  a  general  name  for  that  quality,  or  rather  combination 
of  qualities,  which  causes  discourse  to  make  a  deep  impression  on 
the  mind.     Force  is  therefore  the  cause  of  impressiveness. 

This  quality  manifests  itself  in  a  great  variety  of  forms  or  de- 
grees, and  is  therefore  conveniently  known  by  a  variety  of  terms. 
Those  most  commonly  used  are,  Strength,  Energy,  Vigor,  Vivacity, 
Liveliness,  Animation,  Brilliancy,  Grandeur,  Magnificence,  Lofti- 
ness, Sublimity. 

Force  applies  to  language  addressed  to  the  emotions  as  well  as 
to  that  which  informs  the  intellect ;  hence,  partly,  its  complexity. 

In  order  that  discourse  may  be  forcible  there  must  be  — 

1.  A  vigorous  and  skilful  use  of  that  part  of  our  vocabulary 
which  expresses  power,  physical,  moral,  intellectual,  or  emotional. 

2.  A  clear  and  full  representation  of  the  object  or  thought. 
For  example,  a  description  of  Niagara  Falls  might  fail  to  awaken 
emotions  of  awe  or  sublimity  if  feebly  or  inadequately  given. 

3.  While  the  central  object  or  thought  must  be  kept  promi- 
nently before  the  mind,  the  supports  and  surroundings  must  be 
made  to  harmonize. 

4.  Striking  features  or  points  must  have  prominence,  and  details 
must  be  kept  in  due  subordination,  or  omitted. 

5.  Young  people  are  inclined  to  think  that  "big  words"  and 
dazzling  figures  of  speech  are  the  great  cause  of  force.  At  times 
they  may  be,  but  simplicity  in  language  and  in  the  structure  of 
sentences  is  often  most  effective.  If  the  mind  labors  to  get  the 
meaning,  it  will  be  less  impressed.  What  could  be  more  efiectiv^e 
than,  "  A  world  of  waters  wide  and  deep  "  ? 

6.  Force  may  be  gained  by  dividing  a  general  term  into  its 
chief  parts,  and  stating,  or,  it  may  be,  describing  each  part  sepa- 
rately ;  as,  "  Neither  love,  sorrow,  fame,  ambition,  nor  strife  (for 


-46  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

no  feelings)  can  cut  his  heart  with  the  keen  edge  of  silent,  sharp 
endurance." 

7.  Impressiveness,  the  outcome  of  force,  is  assured  by  building 
an  argument  on  a  generally  accepted  basis  ;  e.g.,  if  a  person  builds 
a  logical  argument  on  such  a  basis  as  "  the  fatherhood  of  God  and 
the  brotherhood  of  man,"  he  will  be  sure  to  carry  strong  conviction 
to  the  minds  of  his  readers. 

8.  One  source  of  force  is  the  author's  vivid  conception  of  the 
subject,  accompanied  by  strong  and  deep  emotion.  As  an  exam- 
ple, take  this  definition  of  history  :  "  History  is  a  mighty  drama, 
enacted  upon  the  theatre  of  time,  with  suns  for  lamps  and  eternity 
for  a  background." 

9.  Whatever  contributes  to  perspicuity  contributes  likewise  to 
force.  Hence  simplicity,  concreteness,  and  transparent  clearness 
of  arrangement  are  of  vital  importance. 

10.  Force  may  sometimes  be  given  by  the  form  of  the  sentence. 
For  example,  vigor  is  sometimes  gained  by  a  number  of  short  sen- 
tences, by  inversion  of  the  order,  or  by  turning  the  expression  into 
the  form  of  an  exclamation  or  an  interrogation. 

11.  Force  maybe  obtained  by  a  repetition  of  the  same  thought 
in  various  forms  or  under  various  figures  ;  as,  "  How  soon  man  is 
forgotten.  History  fades  into  fable  ;  fact  becomes  clouded  with 
doubt  and  controversy  ;  the  inscription  moulders  from  the  tablet ; 
the  statue  falls  from  the  pedestal." 

12.  One  of  the  most  effective  means  of  adding  force  is  the  use 
of  appropriate  and  original  figures  of  speech.  This  has  already 
been  seen  in  preceding  Lessons. 

13.  As  was  shown  in  discussing  Strength,  there  are  in  the  use 
of  language  many  devices  that  increase  the  force  of  style.  All 
these  may  be  employed  to  intensify  the  effect. 

14.  One  great  source  of  force  is  originality.  This  may  show 
itself  in  the  form,  as  in  Carlyle ;  in  the  conception,  as  in  Newton. 

15.  Force,  as  well  as  other  qualities  of  style,  may  be  increased 
by  comparing  the  sul)ject  with  some  other  whose  impressive  gran- 
deur is  well  known.     For  example,  a  writer  renders  his  portrayal 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  247 

of  the  destruction  done  by  the  locusts  more  vivid  by  saying,  "  The 
locusts  have  done  what  the  winds  and  the  lightnings  could  not  do  ; 
and  the  whole  promise  of  the  vintage,  leaves  and  all,  is  gone." 

Pathos. 

The  quality  of  style  that  awakens  tender  emotions  is  usually 
called  Pathos,  or  Feeling.  It  is  the  power  of  producing  in  the 
mind  by  means  of  language  an  effect  similar  to  that  which  the 
scenes  or  incidents  would  themselves  have  created. 

Pathos  is  awakened  by  descriptions  or  relations  of — 

1.  The  love  of  parents  for  their  children,  of  children  for  their 
parents,  or  of  persons  of  one  sex  for  those  of  the  other. 

2.  True  friendship  or  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  the  interests 
of  others.     See  the  story  of  Damon  and  Pythias. 

3.  Tender  sentiments,  humane  actions,  or  whatever  else  tends 
to  increase  human  happiness  or  lessen  human  woe. 

4.  Scenes  of  suffering,  misery,  or  distress.  Those  are  all  the 
more  touching  when  prominence  is  given  to  the  heroism,  meek- 
ness, patience,  or  whatever  serves  to  exhibit  the  nobility  of  the 
character  of  the  sufferer. 

As  style  is  only  form  of  expression,  we  should  distinguish  clearly 
between  Pathos  of  subject  and  Pathos  of  style.  Pathos  of  subject 
is  always  the  same,  though  it  may  affect  different  persons  dif- 
ferently, or  even  the  same  persons  differently  at  different  times  : 
but  the  pathos  of  style  varies  according  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  subject  is  presented.  In  the  statements  that  follow,  pathos 
of  style  only  is  considered. 

Pathos  may  be  increased  — 

I.  By  a  clear  and  impressive  presentation  of  the  subject.  For 
example,  a  scene  of  distress  may  affect  us  but  little  if  it  is  so 
described  as  to  give  us  but  an  imperfect  idea  of  it. 

Here,  then,  is  room  for  the  employment  of  all  the  devices  that 
contribute  to  perspicuity,  picturesqueness,  and  force.  Attention 
should  be  given  to  what  has  been  said  under  each  of  these  heads  ; 
our  feelings  are  reached  through  our  intellect. 


248  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

2.  By  giving  judicious  care  to  the  choice  of  such  language  and 
imagery  as,  by  their  own  power  or  by  means  of  association,  most 
effectually  touch  the  tender  chords  of  our  common  human  nature. 

3.  By  having  the  circumstances  and  surroundings  such  as  har- 
monize with  the  scene.     This  implies  that  — 

a.  All  discordant  matter  must  be  kept  out. 

b.  Distracting  particulars  are  to  be  avoided. 

c.  Only  salient  and  essential  features  are  to  be  dealt  with. 

d.  All  over-straining  is  to  be  eschewed. 

e.  Such  particulars  be  chosen  as  really  intensify  the  effect. 
/.  The  natural  scenery  should  be  suitable. 

g.  Orators  and  poets  often  represent  nature  as  being  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  men  and  women  of  their  story. 

4.  By  introducing  such  associated  circumstances  as  tend  to 
heighten  the  effect.     This  may  be  done  — 

a.  By  such  epithets  and  phrases  as  tend  to  heighten  the  effect ; 
as,  "That  beautiful  c^-^di.  of  tender  years." 

b.  By  the  incidental  mention  of  touching  features. 

c.  By  a  fuller  statement,  or  from  viewing  a  circumstance  from 
different  standpoints.  For  example,  the  pain  of  personal  bereave- 
ment is  made  more  impressive  by  dwelling  on  the  graces  and 
excellences  of  the  departed,  the  pang  of  separation,  the  void  left 
in  the  heart  of  the  living,  the  difficulty  of  forming  new  friendships 
when  the  warmth  of  youth  is  gone,  or  on  the  desolateness  of  life 
without  companionship. 

EXERCISE  LXXXIV. 

Force  and  Pathos. 

Direction.  —  Examine  these  paragraphs.  Point  out  the  various  devices 
on  which  the  force  or  pathos  of  the  style  depends. 

1.  I  spoke  boldly,  freely,  —  in  a  word,  I  spoke  with  passion. 
I  concealed  nothing  —  nothing  even  of  my  weakness. 

2.  Oh,  but,  my  friend  !  to  think  what  a  blow  I  am  to  give  to 
all  her  future  prospects.     How  I  am  to  strike  her  very  soul  to  the 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  249 

earth,  by  telling  her  that  her  husband  is  a  beggar ;  that  she  is  to 
forego  all  the  elegancies  of  life  —  all  the' pleasures  of  society  — 
to  shrink  with  me  into  indigence  and  obscurity. 

3.  The  heart  is  woman's  world  ;  it  is  there  her  ambition  strives 
for  empire ;  it  is  there  her  avarice  seeks  for  hidden  treasures. 
She  sends  forth  her  sympathies  on  adventure  ;  she  embarks  her 
whole  soul  in  the  traffic  of  affection  ;  and  if  shipwrecked,  her  case 
is  hopeless  —  for  it  is  a  bankruptcy  of  the  heart. 

4.  When  I  look  upon  the  tombs  of  the  great,  every  emotion  of 
envy  dies  in  me ;  when  I  read  the  epitaphs  of  the  beautiful,  every 
inordinate  desire  goes  out ;  when  I  meet  with  the  grief  of  parents 
upon  a  tombstone,  my  heart  melts  with  compassion  ;  when  I  see 
the  tomb  of  the  parents  themselves,  I  consider  the  vanity  of  griev- 
ing for  those  whom  we  must  quickly  follow.  When  I  see  kings 
lying  by  those  who  deposed  them,  when  I  consider  rival  wits 
placed  side  by  side,  or  the  holy  men  that  divided  the  world  with 
their  contests  and  disputes,  I  reflect  with  sorrow  and  astonishment 
on  the  little  competitions,  factions,  and  debates  of  mankind. 
When  T  read  the  several  dates  of  the  tombs,  of  some  that  died 
yesterday,  and  some  six  hundred  years  ago,  I  consider  that  great 
day  when  we  shall  all  of  us  be  contemporaries,  and  make  our 
appearance  together. 

5.  If  they  had  only  taken  pictures  then  as  they  do  now  !  — he 
said. — All  gone  !  all  gone  !  Nothing  but  her  face  as  she  leaned 
on  the  arms  of  her  great  chair;  and  I  would  give  a  hundred 
pounds  for  the  poorest  litde  picture  of  her,  such  as  you  can  buy 
for  a  shilling  of  anybody  that  you  don't  want  to  see.  —  The  old 
gentleman  put  his  hand  to  his  forehead  so  as  to  shade  his  eyes. 
I  saw  he  was  thinking    f  his  mother. 

6.  But  were  I  Brutus,  and  Brutus  Antony,  there  were  an  Antony 
would  ruffle  up  your  spirits  and  put  a  tongue  in  every  wound  of 
Caesar  that  should  move  the  stones  of  Rome  to  rise  and  mutiny. 

7.  Here  the  vast  bed  of  the  waters,  seamed  and  scarred  into  a 
thousand  conflicting  channels,  burst  suddenly  into  frenzied  con- 
vulsion—  heaving,  boiling,  hissing  —  gyrating  in  gigantic  and  in- 


250  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

numerable  vortices,  and  all  whirling  and  plunging  on  to  the 
eastward  with  a  rapidity  which  water  never  elsewhere  assumes 
except  in  precipitous  descents. 

8.  They  had  at  this  time  attained  an  altitude  of  above  three 
miles  and  a  half,  having  surmounted  the  highest  strata  of  clouds. 
What  a  place  for  two  human  beings  to  tind  themselves  in,  looking 
upon  sights  never  beheld  but  by  the  sun  and  moon,  and  by  eyes 
spiritual !  Who  is  to  wonder  at  any  enthusiasm  excited  by  them? 
It  seems  to  me  that  if  I  had  been  there  I  should  have  felt  as  if  I 
had  no  business  in  such  a  region  till  disembodied ;  life  and  death 
would  have  seemed  to  meet  together,  and  their  united  wonders 
oppressed  me  beyond  endurance. 

9.  "  He  blenches  not  !  he  blenches  not  !  "  said  Rebecca.  "  I 
see  him  now ;  he  leads  a  body  of  men  close  under  the  outer 
barrier  of  the  barbican.  They  pull  down  the  piles  and  palisades ; 
they  hew  down  the  barriers  with  axes.  His  high  black  plume  floats 
abroad  over  the  throng,  like  a  raven  over  the  field  of  the  slain. 
—  They  have  made  a  breach  in  the  barriers  —  they  rush  in  —  they 
are  thrust  back  !  Front-de-Bceuf  heads  the  defenders ;  I  see  his 
gigantic  form  above  the  press.  They  throng  again  to  the  breach, 
and  the  pass  is  disputed  hand  to  hand,  and  man  to  man.  God  of 
Jacob  !  it  is  the  meeting  of  two  fierce  tides  —  the  conflict  of  two 
oceans  moved  by  adverse  winds  ! " 

She  turned  her  head  from  the  lattice,  as  if  unable  longer  to 
endure  a  sight  so  terrible. 

10.  And  the  king  was  much  moved  and  went  up  to  the  cham- 
ber over  the  gate,  and  wept ;  and  as  he  went  thus  he  said,  "O  my 
son  Absolom,  my  son,  my  son  Absolom  !  Would  to  God  I  had 
died  for  thee,  O  Absolom,  my  son,  my  son !  " 

11.  But  who  are  those  who  make  the  streets  their  couch,  and 
find  a  short  repose  from  wretchedness  at  the  doors  of  the  opulent? 
These  are  strangers,  wanderers  and  orphans,  whose  circumstances 
are  too  humble  to  expect  redress,  and  whose  distresses  are  too 
great  even  for  pity.  The  world  has  disclaimed  them  ;  society 
turns  its  back  upon  their  distress,  and  has  given  them  up  to 
nakedness  and  hunger. 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  25 1 

12.  On  the  barbarians  came  like  an  avalanche,  a  mountain  tor- 
rent, shaking  the  solid  earth,  and  sweeping  away  every  obstacle  in 
its  path.  The  little  army  of  Spaniards  opposed  a  bold  front  to 
the  overwhelming  mass.  But  no  strength  could  withstand  it. 
They  faltered,  gave  way,  were  borne  along  before  it,  and  their 
ranks  were  broken  and  thrown  into  disorder.  It  was  in  vain  the 
general  called  on  them  to  close  again  and  rally.  His  voice  was 
drowned  by  the  din  of  fight,  and  the  fierce  cries  of  the  assailants. 
For  a  moment  it  seemed  that  all  was  lost.  The  tide  of  battle  had 
turned  against  them,  and  the  fate  of  the  Christians  was  sealed. 

13.  Then  Joseph  could  not  refrain  himself  before  all  them  that 
stood  by  him  ;  and  he  cried.  Cause  every  man  to  go  out  from 
me.  And  there  stood  no  man  with  him,  while  Joseph  made  him- 
self known  unto  his  brethren.  And  he  wept  aloud ;  and  the 
Egyptians  and  the  house  of  Pharaoh  heard.  And  Joseph  said 
unto  his  brethren,  I  am  Joseph  ;  doth  my  father  yet  live  ?  And 
his  brethren  could  not  answer  him  ;  for  they  were  troubled  at  his 
presence.  And  Joseph  said  unto  his  brethren,  Come  near  to  me,  I 
pray  you.  And  they  came  near.  And  he  said,  I  am  Joseph  your 
brother,  whom  ye  sold  into  Egypt.  Now,  therefore,  be  not  grieved 
nor  angry  with  yourselves,  that  ye  sold  me  hither  :  for  God  did 
send  me  before  you  to  preserve  life. 

14.  I  approached  the  grave.  On  the  coffin  was  inscribed 
"  (jcorge  Somers,  aged  twenty-six  years."  The  poor  mother  had 
been  assisted  to  kneel  down  at  the  head  of  it.  Her  withered 
hands  were  clasped,  as  if  in  prayer,  but  I  could  perceive  by  a 
feeble  rocking  of  the  body,  and  a  convulsive  motion  of  the  lips, 
that  she  was  gazing  on  the  last  relics  of  her  son,  with  the  yearn- 
ings of  a  mother's  heart. 

Preparations  were  made  to  deposit  the  coffin  in  the  earth.  The 
bustle  around  seemed  to  waken  the  mother  from  a  wretched  reverie. 
She  raised  her  glazed  eyes,  and  looked  about  with  a  faint  wildness. 
As  the  men  approached  with  cords  to  lower  the  coffin  into  the 
grave,  she  wrung  her  hands,  and  broke  into  an  agony  of  grief. 

As  they  lowered  the  body  into  the  earth,  the  creaking  of  the 


252  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

cords  seemed  to  agonize  her ;  but  when,  on  some  accidental 
obstruction,  there  was  a  justUng  of  the  coffin,  all  the  tenderness 
of  the  mother  burst  forth  ;  I  could  see  no  more  —  my  heart  swelled 
into  my  throat  —  my  eyes  filled  with  tears. 

EXERCISE   LXXXV. 

Rhetorical  Analysis. 

I.  In  No.  9  of  the  preceding  Exercise,  give  your  views  on  the 
following  points  :  — 

a.  What  is  the  effect  of  repeating  "  blenches  "? 

b.  Would  it  be  a  gain  or  a  loss  to  introduce  a  conjunction  or 
connective  phrase  between  the  different  sentences? 

c.  "Close  .   o  .  barbican."     Might  the  melody  be  improved ? 

d.  "They  pull  .  .  .  palisades."     Is  the  aUiteration  an  advantage ? 

e.  "Like  .  .  .  slain."  What  is  the  point  of  the  comparison? 
Is  the  simile  used  for  ornament  or  illustration  ?  Does  it  make  the 
"floating  of  the  plume"  more  easily  comprehended? 

/.   To  what  is  the  animation  of  the  description  due  ? 

g.  "  Meeting  .  .  .  winds."  Remark  on  the  use  and  fitness  of 
the  metaphors.  Are  they  becoming  in  the  mouth  of  the  speaker? 
Do  they  suit  the  scene  ? 

h.  How  does  the  length  of  the  sentences  harmonize  with  the 
nature  of  the  scene  ? 

/'.    Are  the  sentences  arranged  in  natural  order? 

j.  Is  there  a  topic  sentence?  Does  such  a  paragraph  admit 
of  one  ? 

k.    What  qualities  of  style  are  prevalent  in  the  passage? 

/.    By  what  devices  are  these  qualities  brought  out? 

EXERCISE   LXXXVI. 

Reproduction. 

1.  Make  yourself  fully  master  of  the  meaning  of  No.  i  of 
Exercise  LXXXIV. 

2.  Reproduce  the  ideas  in  such  language  as  you  can  command. 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  253 

3.  Compare  your  version  with  the  original  to  see  that  you  have 
caught  the  exact  meaning. 

4.  Criticise  your  words,  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  figures  of 
speech, 

5.  Go  through  the  Exercise,  dealing  with  each  of  the  parts  in  a 
similar  way. 


LESSON    XLI. 

THE   LUDICROUS. 

The  Ludicrous  embraces  those  qualities  of  style  that  stir  the 
comic  or  mirthful  part  of  our  nature.  They  appeal  to  our  feelings, 
but  chiefly  through  the  medium  of  our  intellect. 

Under  the  term  "  The  Ludicrous  "  may  be  comprised,  —  Vituper- 
ation, Satire,  Sarcasm,  Ridicule,  Derision,  Raillery,  Wit,  Humor. 

Vituperation,  whose  chief  feature  is  intense,,  yet  restrained, 
denunciation,  does  not  necessarily  provoke  mirth.  It  may  either 
condemn  its  object  to  scorn  or  hold  it  up  to  ridicule. 

Satire  consists  in  such  a  description  of  the  acts  or  character  of 
a  person  as  exposes  his  weaknesses,  folUes,  or  vices,  and  thereby 
lays  him  open  to  ridicule.  As  its  purpose  is  to  reform  men,  it 
lays  bare  only  what  is  reprehensible  in  the  management  of  public 
affairs,  or  what  is  blameworthy  in  private  morals. 

Sarcasm.  —  When  satire  becomes  virulent  and  denounces  with 
derision  the  character,  conduct,  or  views  of  men,  it  is  called 
Sarcasm. 

Ridicule  consists  in  making  the  failings,  errors,  or  vices  of  men 
the  subject  of  good-natured  raillery. 

Derision  differs  from  ridicule  in  being  ill-natured  and  scornful. 
It  is  angry  denunciation  under  the  disguise  of  laughter. 

Raillery  is  a  gentler  kind  of  ridicule,  in  which  a  person  is 
made  the  object  of  good-humored  pleasantry  or  of  slight  satire. 


254  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

These  qualities  are  rendered  effective  by,  — 

1.  A  command  of  suitable  language. 

2.  A  vigorous  use  of  striking  figures,  such  as  Antithesis,  Inu 
endo,  Epigram,  Irony. 

3.  Clearness,  pointedness,  and  simplicity  of  language. 

4.  Plausibility  in  the  charge. 

5 .  Originality. 

6.  Wit  and  humor. 

Wit  and  Humor. 

Wit  consists  chiefly  in  the  discovery  of  incongruous  combina- 
tions or  relations,  or  of  unexpected  resemblances.  Two  kinds  of 
wit  may  be  noted  :  — 

1.  The  first  consists  in  discovering  a  point  of  similarity  between 
ideas  or  objects  that  are  seldom  associated,  and  that  appear  to 
ordinary  observation  to  be  entirely  unlike. 

A  great  part  of  the  pleasure  derived  from  such  works  as  Don 
Quixote  arises  from  the  ludicrous  or  absurd  situations  in  which 
the  characters  are  continually  being  placed. 

2.  The  second  consists  in  the  discovery  of  a  double  meaning 
for  a  word,  in  finding  puns  ;  as,  "  When  the  Chief  Justice  threat- 
ened to  commit  Sheridan,  that  gentleman  replied,  '  It  will  l)e  the 
best  thing  you  ever  committed.'  " 

Jests  are  minor  witticisms,  intended  only  to  provoke  laughter. 

The  pleasure  arising  from  wit  is  that  of  surprise  accompanied 
by  admiration. 

Humor  is  that  tone  which,  running  through  a  composition,  pro- 
vokes in  the  reader  a  good-natured  feeling  that  breaks  out  in  a 
smile,  sometimes  a  laugh.  It  arises  from  the  joining  of  things  that 
are  incongruous,  and  from  presenting  objects  and  ideas  in  an  odd 
and  unusual  light.  It  does  not,  like  wit,  break  out  and  sparkle  at 
points,  but  permeates  every  part  of  the  subject  with  a  genial  glow 
of  delight.  Humor  is  always  kindly  ;  it  never  attempts  to  injure 
or  destroy,  but  is  ever  bathed  in  symjjathy  or  tenderness.  It 
laughs  not  at  men  and  things,  but  with  them. 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  255 

Wit  and  humor,  more,  perhaps,  than  any  other  quaUties  of  style, 
are  natural  gifts.  They  cannot  be  acquired  ;  but  as  their  effective- 
ness is  increased  or  diminished  by  the  form  in  which  they  are 
expressed,  attention  to  language  and  to  all  the  rules  of  correct 
expression  cannot  fail  to  sweeten  and  smooth  the  channel  through 
which  humor  flows,  or  to  point  the  language  in  which  wit  corus- 
cates. To  be  effective  they  must,  like  other  qualities  of  style,  be 
expressed  in  clear,  chaste,  and  suitable  language. 

Among  the  kinds  of  composition  in  which  wit  and  humor  play 
a  prominent  part  are  :  — 

1.  Parody,  in  which  some  great  or  serious  subject  is  degraded 
by  being  applied  to  something  of  a  lighter  or  lower  nature.  The 
degradation  is  effected  by  the  change  of  some  of  the  words  of  the 
original ;  as,  "  To  marry,  or  not  to  marry,  that  is  the  question." 

2.  Travesty,  which  consists  in  distorting  or  misinterpreting 
character  or  action  by  giving  it  a  garb  that  disguises  its  real 
nature. 

3.  Mock-heroic,  which  treats  mean  or  trivial  things  as  if  they 
were  of  vast  importance.  Pope's  Rape  of  the  Lock  is  a  prominent 
example. 

4.  Burlesque,  which  amuses  by  representing  a  person  as  acting 
a  part  that  is  unsuited  to  his  character,  or  by  placing  him  in  situa- 
tions unbecoming  his  actual  station  in  society.  Great  men  may 
be  represented  as  acting  basely,  or  base  men  as  acting  nobly. 

Esthetic  Qualities. 

The  .4ilsthetic  Qualities  of  style  are  those  which  tend  to  make 
discourse  gratifying  to  our  sense  of  the  beautiful.  They  embrace 
Melody,  Harmony,  Taste,  and  Beauty. 

I.  Melody,  as  we  have  already  seen,  consists  in  using  those 
devices  that  make  language  pleasing  to  the  ear.  When  spoken 
of  a  whole  composition,  it  includes,  in  addition  to  the  melody  of 
which  we  have  spoken  in  Lesson  XXVII.,  a  consideration  of  the 
general  effect  of  minute  melody  on  the  writing  taken  as  a  whole. 


256  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

The  melody  of  the  several  sentences   must  blend  harmoniously, 
and  must  be  adapted  to  the  subject. 

2.  Harmony  has  a  variety  of  apphcations,  all  of  which  are 
important  in  composition. 

a.  It  means,  as  previously  stated,  the  adaptation  of  sound  to 
sense. 

b.  Harmony  requires  that  all  the  parts  of  a  composition  should 
correspond  with  one  another, 

(i)  The  language  should  be  suitable  to  the  subject,  and  be 
expressive  of  the  feelings  of  the  speaker. 

(2)  The  scene  should  correspond  with  the  actions  that  take 
place  in  it. 

(3)  The  tone  of  feeling  should  be  suited  to  the  thoughts  ex- 
pressed. 

(4)  The  different  parts  of  a  picture  should  correspond  with  one 
another.  It  will  not  do  to  have  a  frozen  river  running  through  a 
harvest-field. 

See  also  what  is  said  on  page  135. 

3.  Taste  in  rhetoric  means  cultivated  judgment,  a  refined 
sensibility  to  the  effects  of  all  the  expedients  of  composition.  A 
writer  who  possesses  taste  will  avoid  whatever  is  harsh  and  incon- 
gruous. He  will  have  everything  chaste  and  in  keeping.  His 
productions  will  not  have  excrescences  on  the  one  hand,  or  gaps 
on  the  other.  Symmetry  will  be  one  of  his  first  excellences.  His 
diction  will  be  choice  and  precise,  but  will  be  free  from  mannerism. 
He  will  not  carry  striking  artifices  to  excess.  Everything  coarse 
or  indelicate  in  figure  or  allusion  will  be  avoided.  Figures  of 
speech,  the  adornment  of  'language,  will  be  used  sparingly  and 
gracefully ;  no  tawdry  finery  will  be  worked  in ;  no  straining  after 
effect  will  be  indulged. 

The  word  "  taste  "  is  applied  also  to  composition.  Discourse 
which  is  so  written  as  to  be  pleasing  to  a  person  of  refined  literary 
sensibility  is  said  to  be  in  good  taste. 

The  term  "  beauty  "  is,  likewise,  often  used  to  indicate  in  a  gen- 
eral way  the  possession  of  those  qualities  that  gratify  a  cultured 
intellect  and  refined  feelinsfs. 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  257 

EXERCISE  LXXXVII. 

The  Ludicrous. 

Direction.  —  Name  the  feature  of  the  ludicrous  that  is  prevalent  in  each 
of  the  following  sentences.  Analyze  each  feature,  and  show  on  what  each 
depends. 

1.  He  described  a  volcano  as  a  mountain  with  a  fireplace  in  it. 

2.  "  It  was  probable,"  said  the  Indian  king,  as  they  viewed 
Westminster  Abbey,  "  that  when  this  great  work  was  begun,  which 
must  have  been  many  hundred  years  ago,  there  was  some  religion 
among  this  people ;  for  they  give  it  the  name  of  a  temple,  and 
have  a  tradition  that  it  was  designed  for  men  to  pay  their  devo- 
tions in.  And  indeed  there  are  several  reasons  which  make  us 
think  that  the  natives  of  this  country  had  formerly  among  them 
some  sort  of  worship ;  for  they  set  apart  every  seventh  day  as 
sacred :  but  upon  my  going  into  one  of  these  holy  houses  on 
that  day,  I  could  not  observe  any  circumstance  of  devotion  in 
their  behavior  :  there  was  indeed  a  man  in  black  who  was  mounted 
above  the  rest,  and  seemed  to  utter  something  with  a  great  deal 
of  vehemence  ;  but  as  for  those  underneath  him,  instead  of  paying 
their  worship  to  the  Deity  of  the  place,  they  were  most  of  them 
bowing  and  courtesying  to  one  another,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  them  were  fast  asleep." 

3.  All  the  time,  Mr.  Winkle,  with  his  face  and  hands  blue  with 
the  cold,  had  been  forcing  a  gimlet  into  the  soles  of  his  feet,  and 
putting  his  skates  on  with  the  points  behind,  and  getting  the 
straps  into  a  very  complicated  and  entangled  state,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Mr.  Snodgrass,  who  knew  rather  less  about  skates  than  a 
Hindoo. 

4.  His  son  was  generally  seen  trooping  like  a  colt  at  his  mother's 
heels,  equipped  in  a  pair  of  his  fother's  cast-off  gallygaskins,  which 
he  had  much  ado  to  hold  up  with  one  hand,  as  a  fine  lady  does 
her  train  in  bad  weather. 

5.  An  absent-minded  professor,  in  going  out  of  the  gate  of  his 
college,  ran  against  a  cow.     In  the  confusion  of  the  moment,  he 


2  5t5  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

raised  his  hat  and  exclaimed,  "  I  beg  your  pardon,  madam." 
Soon  after,  he  stumbled  against  a  lady  in  the  street.  In  sudden 
recollection  of  his  former  mishap,  he  called  out,  "  Is  that  you 
again,  you  brute?  " 

6.  Harrowgate  is  the  most  heaven-forgotten  country  under  the 
sun.  When  I  saw  it,  there  were  only  nine  mangy  fir-trees  there  ; 
and  even  they  all  leaned  away  from  it. 

7.  Cranmer  could  vindicate  himself  from  the  danger  of  being  a 
heretic  only  by  arguments  which  made  him  out  to  be  a  murderer. 

8.  It  is  the  misfortune  of  your  life,  and  originally  the  cause  of 
every  reproach  and  distress  which  has  attended  your  government, 
that  you  should  never  have  been  acquainted  with  the  language  of 
truth,  until  you  heard  it  in  the  complaints  of  your  people. 

9.  Two  maxims  of  any  great  man  at  court  are  :  always  to  keep 
his  countenance,  and  never  to  keep  his  word. 

10.  "Every  other  chief  of  a  party,"  says  Carnot,  "has  found 
apologists :  one  set  of  men  exalts  the  Girondists,  another  set 
justifies  Danton,  a  third  deifies  Robespierre ;  but  Barere  has 
remained  without  a  defender.  We  venture  to  suggest  ^a  very 
simple  solution  of  this  phenomenon.  All  the  other  chiefs  of 
parties  had  some  good  qualities ;  and  Barere  had  none.  The 
genius,  courage,  patriotism,  and  humanity  of  the  Girondists  states- 
men more  than  atoned  for  what  was  culpable  in  their  conduct,  and 
should  have  protected  them  from  the  insult  of  being  compared 
with  such  a  man  as  Barere.  Danton  and  Robespierre  were  indeed 
bad  men;  but  in  bath  of  them  some  important  parts  of  the  mind 
remained  sound.  Danton  was  brave  and  resolute,  fond  of  pleas- 
ure, of  power,  and  of  distinction  ;  with  vehement  passions,  with 
lax  principles,  but  with  some  kind  and  manly  feelings ;  capable 
of  great  crimes,  but  capable  also  of  friendship  and  of  compassion. 
He,  therefore,  naturally  finds  admirers  among  persons  of  bold  and 
sanguine  dispositions.  Robespierre  was  a  vain,  envious,  and  sus- 
picious man,  with  a  hard  heart,  weak  nerves,  and  a  gloomy  temper. 
But  we  cannot  with  truth  deny  that  he  was  disinterested,  that  his 
private  life  was  correct,  or  that  he  was  zealous  for  his  own  system 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  259 

of  politics  and  morals.  He,  therefore,  naturally  finds  admirers 
among  honest  but  moody  and  bitter  democrats.  If  no  class  has 
taken  the  reputation  of  Barere  under  its  patronage,  the  reason  is 
plain  :  Barere  had  not  a  single  virtue,  nor  even  the  semblance 
of  one." 

11.  Railroad  travelling  is  a  delightful  improvement  of  human 
life.  Man  is  become  a  bird  ;  he  can  fly  longer  and  quicker  than 
a  Solan  goose.  The  mamma  rushes  sixty  miles  in  two  hours,  to 
the  aching  fingers  of  her  conjugating  and  declining  grammar  boy. 
The  early  Scotchman  scratches  himself  in  the  morning  mists  of  the 
North,  and  has  his  porridge  in  Piccadilly  before  the  setting  sun. 

12.  "  Do  you  think  I  shall  have  justice  done  me  ?  "  said  a  culprit 
to  his  counsel,  a  shrewd  Kentucky  lawyer  of  the  best  class  of  that 
eloquent  state.  "  I  am  a  little  afraid  that  you  will  not,"  replied  the 
other ;  "  I  see  two  men  on  the  jury  who  are  opposed  to  hanging." 

13.  Some  one  threw  a  head  of  cabbage  at  an  Irish  orator  while 
he  was  making  a  speech.  He  paused  a  second,  and  said.  "(Gentle- 
men, I  asked  only  for  your  ears  ;  I  don't  care  for  your  heads." 

14.  Two  sons  of  the  Cireen  Isle,  travelling,  came  in  sight  of  a 
gibbet,  or  gallows,  in  a  lonely  field.  One  of  them  said  to  the 
other,  "Where  would  you  be,  if  that  gallows  had  its  due?"  — 
"  Oh  !  "  he  replied,  "  I  should  be  travelling  alone." 

15.  Her  face  resembles  a  congress  at  the  close  of  a  general 
war,  wherein  all  the  members,  even  to  her  eyes,  appear  to  have  a 
different  interest,  and  her  nose  and  chin  are  the  only  parties  likely 
to  join  issue. 

16.  Plato  having  defined  man  to  be  a  biped  without  feathers, 
Diogenes  plucked  a  rooster  and  carried  it  to  Plato's  school,  wath 
the  remark,  "  Here's  Plato's  man." 

17.  Cond(i  admired  William  HI. ;  he  also  admired  his  lap-dog. 

18.  You  are  too  severe  on  the  widow.  It  is  not  that  she  paints 
so  badly  ;  but,  when  she  has  finished  her  face,  she  joins  it  on  so 
badly  with  the  neck,  that  she  looks  like  a  mended  statue,  in  which 
the  connoisseur  may  see  at  once  that  the  head  is  modern  and  the 
trunk  is  antique. 


260  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE    LXXXVIII. 

^Esthetic  Qualities. 

Direction.  —  Point  out  the  aesthetic  qualities.  State  tc  what  each  is  due, 
and  remark  on  the  rhetorical  gain. 

1.  Look  not  mournfully  into  the  past.  It  comes  not  back. 
Wisely  improve  the  present.  It  is  thine.  Go  forth  to  meet  the 
shadowy  future,  without  fear  and  with  a  manly  heart. 

2.  She  is  dead.  No  sleep  so  beautiful  and  calm,  so  free  from 
trace  of  pain,  so  fair  to  look  upon.  She  seemed  a  creature  fresh 
from  the  hand  of  God,  and  waiting  for  the  breath  of  life,  not  one 
who  had  lived  and  suffered  death. 

3.  The  wood  I  walk  in  on  this  mild  May  day,  with  the  young 
yellow-brown  fohage  of  the  oaks  between  me  and  the  blue  sky, 
the  white  star-flowers,  and  the  blue-eyed  speedwell,  and  the 
ground  ivy  at  my  feet,  —  what  grove  of  tropic  palms,  what  strange 
ferns,  or  splendid  broad-petaled  blossoms  could  ever  thrill  such 
deep  and  delicate  fibres  within  me  as  the  home  scene  ? 

4.  As  he  had  sometimes  felt,  gazing  up  from  the  deck  at  mid- 
night into  the  boundless  starlit  depths  overhead,  in  a  rapture  of 
devout  wonder  at  that  endless  brightness  and  beauty,  —  in  some 
such  a  way  now,  the  depth  of  this  pure  devotion  quite  smote  upon 
him,  and  filled  his  heart  with  thanksgiving. 

5.  April  advanced  to  May;  a  bright  serene  May  it  was  ;  days 
of  blue  sky,  placid  sunshine,  and  soft  western  or  southern  gales 
billed  up  its  duration.  Lo  !  wood  shook  loose  its  tresses  ;  it  became 
all  green,  all  flowery ;  woodland  plants  sprang  up  profusely  in  its 
recesses,  unnumbered  varieties  of  moss  filled  its  hollows,  making 
a  strange  ground-sunshine  out  of  the  wealth  of  its  wild  primrose 
plants. 

6.  There  was  nothing  to  mar  her  delight  in  the  whispers  and 
the  dreamy  silences,  when  she  listened  to  the  light  dipping  sounds 
of  the  rising  fish  and  the  gentle  rustling,  as  if  the  willows  and  the 
reeds  and  the  water  had  their  happy  whisperings  also. 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE.  26 1 

7.  The  slanting  light  of  the  setting  sun  quivers  on  the  sea-like 
expanse  of  the  river.  The  shivery  canes  and  the  tall  dark  cypress, 
hung  with  wreaths  of  dark  funereal  moss,  glow  in  the  golden  ray, 
as  the  heavily  laden  steamboat  marches  onward. 

8.  These  home  scenes  are  the  mother- tongue  of  our  imagination, 
the  language  that  is  laden  with  all  the  subtle  inextricable  associa- 
tions the  fleeting  hours  of  our  childhood  left  behind  them.  Our 
delight  in  the  sunshine  on  the  deep-bladed  grass  to-day  might  be 
no  more  than  the  faint  perception  of  wearied  .souls,  if  it  were  not 
for  the  sunshine  and  grass  of  far-off  years,  which  still  live  in  us, 
and  transform  our  perception  into  love.  (Are  the  diction  and 
rhythm  beyond  the  limits  of  prose?  Give  reasons  for  your 
answer.) 

9.  "Willingly,"  saidst  thou?  Ay,  as  willingly  as  when  in  the 
Gulf  of  Lyons,  I  flung  over  my  merchandise  to  lighten  the  ship, 
while  she  labored  in  the  tempest — robed  the  seething  billows  in 
my  choice  silks,  perfumed  their  briny  foam  with  myrrh  and  aloes, 
enriched  their  caverns  with  gold  and  silver  work.  (Are  the  figures 
too  abundant?) 

10.  When  I  married  him,  the  bald  spot  on  his  head  was  not 
much  bigger  than  a  silver  dollar.  Now  the  top  of  his  head  is  as 
smooth  and  clean  as  one  of  our  China  dinner-plates  ;  and  if  a 
norse-jockey  was  to  try  to  judge  of  his  age  by  looking  at  his  teeth, 
he  would  be  bafiled,  not  because  he  has  none,  but  because  they 
are  like  hen's  teeth,  few  and  far  between.  But  still  pure  love  tri- 
umphs over  lost  teeth  and  vanished  sandy  hair.  There  is  not  a  man 
on  earth  who  looks  so  good  to  me.  (Give  reasons  why  the  figures 
do,  or  do  not,  meet  your  views  of  the  requirements  of  taste.) 

11.  The  winding  river  gleamed  like  silver  far  below,  the  shadows 
gathered  over  mountain  and  valley,  and  a  solemn  awe  filled  the 
soul.  Down,  down  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  the  mighty 
torrent  rushed  and  tumbled  in  great  jumps  over  gigantic  rocks 
that  have  broken  away  from  above,  and  settled  in  the  narrow  bed. 
(Point  out  the  cause  of  the  melody  in  the  first  sentence,  and  of 
the  harmony  in  the  second.) 


262  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

12.  The  Duke  of  Bedford  is  the  leviathan  among  all  the  crea- 
tures of  the  crown.  He  tumbles  about  his  unwieldy  bulk ;  he 
plays  and  frolics  in  the  ocean  of  the  royal  bounty.  Huge  as  he 
is,  and  while  he  lies,  "  floating  many  a  rood,"  he  is  still  a  creature. 
His  ribs,  his  fins,  his  whalebone,  his  blubber,  the  very  spiracles 
through  which  he  spouts  a  torrent  of  brine  against  his  origin,  and 
covers  me  all  over  with  the  spray,  —  everything  of  him  and  about 
him  is  from  the  throne.  (Inquire  whether  the  vituperation  goes 
beyond  the  bounds. of  good  taste.) 

13.  These,  our  actors,  as  I  foretold  you,  were  all  spirits,  and  are 
melted  into  air,  into  thin  air.  And  like  the  baseless  fabric  of  this 
vision,  the  cloud-capped  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces,  the  solemn 
temples,  the  great  globe  itself,  yea,  all  which  it  inherit,  shall  dis- 
solve, and,  like  this  unsubstantial  pageant  faded,  leave  not  a  rock 
behind.     (Do  the  words  harmonize  with  the  thought?) 

14.  "  Methinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puissant  nation, 
rousing  herself  like  a  strong  man  after  sleep,  and  shaking  her 
invincible  locks;  methinks  I  see  her  as  an  eagle  mewing  her 
mighty  youth,  and  kindling  her  undazzled  eyes  at  the  full  midday 
beam  ;  purging  and  unsealing  her  long-abused  sight  at  the  fountain 
itself  of  the  heavenly  radiance  ;  while  the  whole  noise  of  timorous 
and  flocking  birds,  with  those  also  that  love  the  twilight,  flutter 
about,  amazed  at  what  she  means,  and  in  their  envious  gabble 
would  prognosticate  a  year  of  sects  and  schisms."  (Show  that 
the  language  harmonizes  with  the  thought.) 


LETTERS.  263 

LESSON    XLII. 

LETTERS. 

A  Letter  is  a  written  communication  sent  by  one  person  to 
another. 

Importance. — To  people  in  general  there  is  no  part  of  com- 
position so  important  as  letter-writing.  Almost  every  person  needs 
to  make  use  of  it  at  some  time  in  his  Ufe.  In  fact,  it  is  the 
only  kind  of  composition  that  most  people  ever  write.  It  should, 
therefore,  receive  a  due  share  of  attention  in  any  course  of  instruc- 
tion intended  to  fit  young  people  for  the  practical  duties  of  life. 

Kinds.  —  Letters  are  generally  classed  under  two  heads,  — 
Familiar  Letters  and  Business  Letters. 

Form.  —  In  the  form  of  a  letter  the  following  points  require 
attention  :  the  Heading,  the  Address,  the  Body  of  the  Letter,  the 
Conclusion,  and  the  Superscription. 

I.  The  Heading  consists  of  two  parts,  (i)  the  place,  (2)  the 
date. 

a.  In  letters  written  from  a  small  town,  village,  or  country 
place,  the  name  of  the  post-office  and  of  the  state  is  sufficient ; 
but  in  writing  from  a  city,  the  street  and  the  door-number  should 
be  given,  as  well  as  the  name  of  the  city  and  of  the  state.  Some- 
times the  name  of  a  hotel  or  public  institution  is  used  instead  of 
the  street  and  door-number. 

b.  The  date  consists  of  the  month,  the  day  of  the  month,  ?nd 
the  year.  Abbreviations  are  commonly  used  ;  as  Dec.  loth,  1889, 
or  loth  Dec,  1889. 

c.  The  heading  stands  at  such  a  distance  from  the  top  of  the 
page,  and  from  the  right  edge,  as  good  taste  may  dictate.  It  may 
consist  of  one,  two,  or  three  lines.  When  there  are  more  than 
one,  the  date  occupies  one  line,  and  the  lines  slope  to  the  right 
(See  specimens.) 


264  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

2.  The  Address  has  four  parts  :  (i)  the  name  ;  (2)  the  title  ; 
(3)  the  place  of  business,  or  the  residence  ;   (4)  the  salutation. 

a.  The  address  stands  on  the  left,  beginning  on  the  next  line 
below  the  heading. 

b.  The  first  two  parts  are  written  on  the  first  line,  the  third  part 
on  the  second  line,  and  the  fourth  on  the  succeeding  line.  These 
lines  may  all  slope  to  the  right,  or  the  first  two  may  slope  and  the 
third  begin  under  the  first. 

c.  The  title  should  be  appropriate  to  the  person  addressed. 
Those  commonly  used  are  :  To  the  name  of  a  young  lady.  Miss 
is  prefixed  ;  of  a  married  lady  or  widow,  Mrs. ;  of  a  lad.  Master; 
of  a  man  without  special  title,  Mr.  (with  its  plural  Messrs.  for 
more  than  one  man) .  Instead  of  Mr.,  Esq.  after  the  name  is  fre- 
quently used,  and  is  considered  preferable  in  addressing  men  in 
liberal  professions.  To  the  name  of  a  clergyman  is  prefixed  Rev. 
or  Rev.  Mr. ;  if  he  is  a  Doctor  of  Divinity  or  of  Medicine,  Rev. 
Dr.  or  Rev.  may  be  written  before  the  name  and  D.D.  or  'M.D. 
after  it.  When  a  person  has  a  professional  title,  as  Dr.,  Pres., 
Capt,  Col.,  Prof.,  it  should  be  used.  Hon.  stands  before  the 
name  of  a  cabinet  officer,  a  member  of  Congress,  or  of  the  state 
legislature,  a  judge,  or  a  mayor.  His  Excellency  precedes  the 
name  of  the  President,  a  governor,  or  an  ambassador.  The  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  is  addressed  simply  Mr.  President 

d.  The  salutation  should  be  in  keeping  with  the  title  as  well  as 
with  the  writer's  relation  to  the  one  addressed.  It  may  be  Sir, 
Dear  Sir,  My  dear  Sir,  Madam,  Dear  Madam,  My  dear  Madam, 
Rev.  Sir,  Dear  Mr.  Moberly,  My  dear  Mr.  Moberly,  Dear 
Mary,  etc. 

e.  In  business  letters  the  whole  address  is  generally  written  as 
indicated  in  [a),  but  in  familiar  and  official  letters  the  salutation 
usually  stands  alone  at  the  beginning,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
address  is  placed  below  the  conclusion  on  the  left  side. 

3.  The  Body  of  the  Letter  follows  at  the  end  of  the  saluta- 
tion, and  on  the  same  line,  if  the  address  occupies  three  or  four 
lines  j  otherwise,  on  the  line  below  it. 


LETTERS. 


265 


4.  The  conclusion  consists  of  (i)  the  Complimentary  Close, 
(2)  the  Signature. 

a.  The  conclusion  begins  on  the  next  line  below  the  body  of 
the  letter,  its  parts  slope  to  the  right,  and  the  last  words  stand  a 
little  distance  from  the  right  edge  of  the  sheet. 

b.  The  complimentary  close  consists  of  some  words  of  attach- 
ment or  of  respect  and  should  always  correspond  with  the  salu- 
tation. Yours  truly,  Truly  yours,  Yours  respectfully,  Your  friend, 
Yours  faithfully.  Your  obedient  servatit,  and  many  other  such 
terms  are  used. 

c.  The  signature  consists  of  the  full  name  of  the  writer.  With 
friends,  the  initials  of  the  Christian  name  may  be  used.  In  writing  to 
a  stranger,  a  lady  should  place  {Miss)  or  {M/s.)  before  her  signature. 

5.  The  superscription,  or  address  on  the  envelope,  has  three 
parts  :  (i)  the  name  ;  (2)  the  title  ;  (3)  the  place  of  business,  or 
the  residence. 

a.  These  should  be  the  same  as  in  the  address,  with  such  addi- 
tional particulars  as  to  the  street,  door-number,  city,  state,  as  will 
ensure  the  safe  delivery  of  the  letter. 

b.  The  name  should  be  written  about  the  middle  of  the  envelope, 
and  the  other  items  should  slope  to  the  right  as  in  the  address,  so 
that  the  last  word  ends  near  the  right  corner.     Thus  :  — 


STAMP. 

0 

/,  y. 

266  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 

Familiar  Letters  are  chiefly  confined  to  personal  matters  that 
concern  only  the  writer  and  the  person  addressed,  but  they  may 
include  a  very  wide  range  of  subjects.  Sometimes  they  go  far 
beyond  this  limit  and  embrace  narrations,  descriptions,  or  even 
disquisitions,  that  are  of  interest  to  the  two  friends. 

Style.  —  Whatever  the  nature  of  the  subject  or  matters  treated 
of  in  familiar  letters,  the  style  should  be  simple,  easy,  and  natural. 
As  letters  are  the  best  expedient  that  can  be  adopted  in  place  of 
conversation,  the  language  should  be  clear,  vigorous,  and  collo- 
quial. All  straining  after  effect,  all  elaboration  of  diction,  all  far- 
fetched ornaments  are  out  of  place  and  lessen  the  reader's  pleas- 
ure by  leaving  the  impression  that  the  letter  was  not  sent  simply 
out  of  friendship,  as  is  professed,  but  for  some  other  object,  pre- 
sumably the  glorification  of  the  writer.  All  such  manifestations 
of  self-interest  freeze  the  flow  of  true  friendship,  and  transform 
letters  into  cold  and  formal  essays.  As  essays  they  may  possess 
all  the  excellences  of  superior  composition  ;  yet  they  lack  the 
touch  of  nature  that  binds  heart  to  heart.  In  saying  this,  it  is  not 
meant  that  the  style  should  be  careless  and  slovenly,  that  no 
attention  is  to  be  given  to  neatness  and  beauty,  that  all  wit,  humor, 
and  liveliness  are  to  be  excluded.  On  the  contrary,  let  there  be 
all  of  these  qualities  and  characteristics  possible,  but  let  them  be 
such  as  naturally  suggest  themselves ;  not  the  result  of  effort,  but 
the  spontaneous  outflow  of  sympathy,  and  the  promptings  of  a 
warm  and  affectionate  nature.  In  letters  of  true  friendship  the 
head  is  the  handmaid,  not  the  mistress,  of  the  heart.  Lastly,  let 
it  be  observed  that  though  the  predominant  feature  of  the  style 
of  familiar  letters  is  naturalness  and  ease,  yet  from  the  variety  of 
subjects  that  may  be  introduced,  the  general  rules  of  composition 
apply  and  should  in  due  subordination  exert  their  proper  influence. 

Notes  of  Invitation.  —  Formal  notes  are  written  in  the  third 
person,  and  are  without  heading,  introduction,  or  conclusion. 
The  name  of  the  place  and  the  date  are  written  at  the  bottom  at 
the  left  side  of  the  page.  The  answer  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  the  same  form  as  the  original  note,  thus  :  — 


LETTERS.  267 

Mrs.  Smith  requests  the  pleas-  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Gamble  accept 

lire  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Gamble's  with  pleasure  Mrs.  Smith's  kind 

company  on  next  Tuesday  even-  invitation     for     next     Tuesday 

ing  at  eight  o'clock.  evening. 

38  Pine  Street,  Aug.  5th.  107  Maple  Street,  Aug.  5th. 

Business  Letters.  —  In  business  letters,  the  chief  requisites 
are  clearness,  neatness,  and  brevity.  As  few  words  as  possible 
should  be  used,  and  all  irrelevant  matter  omitted.  A  reply  to  a 
letter  should  follow  the  order  therein,  and  should  discuss  each 
subject  separately.  Care  must  be  taken  to  word  every  sentence 
so  that  there  can  be  no  possibility  of  mistaking  the  meaning. 

Capitals  and  Punctuation.  —  The  general  rules  are  that 
every  important  word  begins  with  a  capital,  all  items  are  followed 
by  commas,  and  the  whole  of  each  part  is  closed  by  a  period. 
The  salutation  is,  however,  followed  by  a  comma  and  a  dash, 
sometimes  by  a  colon. 

Example  :  — 

493  Jefferson  Ave., 

Detroit,  Mich., 

Aug.  8,  1793. 

My  dear  Sir,  — 

I  am,  my  dear  Sir, 

Ever  most  affectionately  yours, 
Geo.  Canning. 
Philip  Towler,  Esq., 
Findlay,  O. 


268 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


Dearest  Edward,  — 


382  Pennsylvania  St., 
Buffalo,  N.Y., 

May  II,  1811. 


E.  H.  Black,  Esq., 

Chicago  Theo.  Seminary, 
45  Warren  Ave., 
Chicago,  111. 


I  am,  your  kindest  brother, 
John  Wilson. 


Messrs.  Hare  &  Smith, 
Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Gentlemen,  — 


297  Washington  St., 
Buffalo,  N.Y., 

May  9,  1889. 


We  remain. 

Your  obedient  servants, 
Thomson  &  Co. 


J.  C.  Selover,  Esq., 

75  New  St.,  New  York. 
Dear  Sir,  — 


300  Hamburg  Ave., 
Paterson,  N.J., 
June  8,  x888. 


I  am, 


Yours  truly, 

A.  L.  Lewis. 


LETTERS.  269 

162  S.  Clark  St., 
Chicago,  111., 

May  5,  1SS9. 
Messrs.  Jones  &  Co., 
Denver,  Col. 

Gentlemen,  —  Having  set  up  in  business  here  with  pros- 
pects of  good  success,  I  desire  to  open  an  account  with  your  house, 
and  trust  it  will  be  to  our  mutual  advantage.  With  this  view,  I 
enclose  order  to  be  filled  with  the  least  possible  delay,  and  on 
your  lowest  terms.  As  this  is  a  first  transaction,  upon  the  receipt 
of  the  invoice,  less  the  discount  for  cash,  I  will  send  my  check  for 
the  amount. 

Referring  you  to  Messrs.  Henderson  &  Co.,  of  this  place, 

I  am,  gentlemen, 

Yours  respectfully, 
W.  L.  Stevens. 

EXERCISE  LXXXIX. 

Letters. 

Direction.  —  Write  the  following  in  the  proper  form  of  a  letter  as  illus- 
trated in  the  specimens.  Give  attention  to  the  position  of  the  parts,  to 
capitals,  punctuation,  and  all  other  points. 

1.  249  nassau  st.  hamilton  o  august  loth  1891  messrs  moss 
James  &  co  richmond  n  y  gentlemen we  remain  gen- 
tlemen yours  respectfully  harper  henderson  &  co. 

2.  Washington  d  c  march  14th  1890  my  dear  son 

your  father  henry  Jameson  samuel  Jameson  97  fifth  st  Cincinnati. 

3.  brooklyn  april  21st  1891  gentlemen yours  obe- 
diently mills  &  tilton  to  messrs  c  moore  &  co  100  45  th  n  y. 

4.  Write  a  letter  to  a  supposed  cousin,  Andrew  King,  at  169 
Jefferson  Avenue,  Detroit.     Date  the  letter  at  your  own  home. 

5.  Illustrate  the  form  of  a  letter  to  Messrs.  Jones,  Smith,  &  Co., 
Toledo,  Ohio,  remitting  a  check.  Date  the  letter  at  your  place 
of  business. 


2/0  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XLIII. 

THE    PLAN. 

Invention  means  finding  out  what  to  say  and  the  best  plan  on 
which  to  arrange  what  is  said. 

The  Difficulty.  —  In  the  former  part  of  this  work,  we  have 
spoken  chiefly  of  the  dress  in  which  our  thoughts  are  clothed,  now 
we  come  to  speak  of  the  thoughts  themselves  and  of  the  methods 
of  discourse.  With  young  writers,  this  is  the  most  difficult  and 
discouraging  part  of  composition.  When  they  have  thoughts,  as 
in  conversation  or  in  letter-writing,  they  can  always  manage  to 
express  them  in  some  way.  But  how  to  get  the  thoughts?  how 
to  tell  what  to  say?  that  is  the  real  difficulty.  The  following 
hints,  if  carefully  attended  to,  will  afford  some  assistance. 

How  to  begin.  —  When  a  subject  has  been  selected,  the 
student  must  set  to  work  to  think  over  it.  As  thoughts  come  into 
the  mind  he  should  note  them  down.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
write  them  out  in  full,  but  merely  to  make  such  a  note  of  them 
as  will  enable  him  to  recall  them  when  needed. 

How  to  get  Thoughts.  —  When  thoughts  do  not  come,  they 
can  sometimes  be  drawn  out  by  asking  How?  When?  Why? 
Where?  Then,  again,  ideas  may  be  found  by  conversing  with 
people  who  know  something  of  the  subject ;  they  may  also  be 
gathered  from  the  works  of  those  who  have  written  on  the  same 
or  on  similar  subjects.  The  learner  should  always  think  over 
what  is  acquired  in  this  way  and  try  to  make  the  thoughts  his 
own,  so  that  when  he  comes  to  express  them,  he  may  be  able  to 
do  so  in  his  own  language. 

Construction.  —  After  all  available  material  has  been  col- 
lected, and  the  subject  has  been  thought  over  till  it  is  fairly 
understood,  the  next  thing  to  do  is  to  arrange  the  matter  under 
distinct  heads.  Usually  it  is  well  to  have  but  few  divisions ;  they 
should  be  entirely  separate,  and  should  lead  naturally  and  easily 


THE    PLAN.  271 

from  point  to  point  in  the  subject.     Ample  time  should  be  given 
to  making  a  simple,  clear,  and  logical  framework. 

When  the  material  is  all  under  the  eye  in  the  form  of  notes, 
search  it  carefully  for  the  leading  thoughts.  Be  sure  you  do  not 
rank  as  principal,  any  of  the  thoughts  that  may  be  classified  under 
some  one  of  the  general  heads.  See  that  no  point  is  allowed  to 
appear  twice,  disguised  under  different  words.  If  you  find  any 
points  that  at  first  seem  relevant,  but  on  further  consideration,  are 
not  so,  throw  them  out  without  hesitation. 

In  every  kind  of  discourse  the  question  of  order  is  vital.  No 
subject  can  be  written  out  clearly  unless  the  framework  is  regular 
and  symmetrical.  There  is  always  one  order  that  is  superior  to 
all  others.     Study  your  material  till  you  find  it. 

Amplification.  —  When  the  material  has  been  arranged  under 
the  different  heads,  the  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  treat  each 
head  as  a  separate  subject,  but  also  as  forming  part  of  a  whole. 
In  thinking  these  over,  note  down  carefully,  as  before,  all  the 
thoughts  that  arise  ;  seek  for  illustrations  of  the  main  idea  in 
the  topic,  and  of  each  thought  or  view  that  it  contains.  Find 
also,  if  you  can,  some  apt  quotation  by  which  your  point  may 
be  enforced.  When  all  the  thoughts  and  illustrations  that  can  be 
obtained  are  noted  down,  begin  to  arrange  them  in  logical  order. 
Then  in  thought  review  the  whole  again  and  again,  till  the  mind 
has  mastered  every  part  of  it  and  is  in  a  manner  filled  with  it. 
When  this  is  done,  all  is  ready  to  begin  the  labor  of  writing  out. 

Form.  —  Every  theme,  when  complete,  consists  of  three  parts 
—  the  Introduction,  the  Discussion,  and  the  Conclusion. 

The  Introduction  usually  consists  of  two  parts.  The  first  part 
contains  one  or  more  sentences  that  prepare  the  way  for  the 
second  part.  This  consists  of  a  statement  of  the  proposition  or 
subject  to  be  discussed.  Sometimes  the  two  parts  are  combined, 
or  the  first  part  is  omitted  altogether. 

The  Discussion  is  the  methodical  development  of  the  proposi- 
tion. This  should  grow  naturally  from  the  leading  thought,  and 
should  proceed  on  a  well  arranged  plan. 


2/2  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

The  Conclusion  is  that  part  of  discourse  by  which  it  is  prop- 
erly completed.  It  may  be  used  to  repeat  the  chief  points,  to 
remove  doubts,  to  explain  difficulties,  to  enlist  sympathies,  or 
to  strengthen  convictions.  In  it  the  most  elaborate  expressions 
may  be  used  ;  the  last  sentence  should  be  one  of  such  finished 
beauty  that  it  will  linger  in  the  hearer's  mind. 

Writing  out.  —  It  has  been  said  that  teachers  never  can  be 
good  writers,  because  their  mind  is  so  much  set  on  correctness 
of  form,  that  the  warmth  of  feeling  is  chilled,  and  the  flow  of  ideas 
is  cramped.  There  is  much  truth  in  this,  as  a  general  proposition. 
If  the  mind  is  trammelled  with  rules  and  formulas,  it  does  not  act 
with  freedom,  but  with  a  stiffness  that  mars  the  beauty  of  the 
production.  In  view  of  this  fact,  it  will  be  found  best  to  write  on 
as  freely  and  rapidly  as  the  thoughts  come  to  the  mind,  without 
paying  much  attention  to  the  words  used,  to  the  rhetorical  form 
of  the  sentences,  to  grammatical  rules,  or  to  anything  except  the 
expression  of  the  thought.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  write  the  lines 
some  distance  apart,  so  as  to  allow  space  for  interlining. 

Review.  —  After  the  whole  essay,  or  any  one  of  the  parts,  has 
been  written  out,  read  it  over  carefully  to  see  if  all  the  thoughts 
have  been  expressed,  and  expressed  in  the  proper  place,  as  well 
as  in  the  most  suitable  manner.  If  the  first  writing  seems  generally 
unsatisfactory,  rewrite  the  whole  again,  and  even  a  third  time. 
Such  labor  will  be  amply  repaid. 

Criticism.  — After  the  writing  out  has  been  finished,  the  work 
of  criticism  should  begin.  In  this  part  of  the  task,  the  following 
points  should  receive  due  attention  :  — 

1.  The  spelling  and  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  sentences 
should  be  carefully  examined. 

2.  The  words  employed  should  be  examined  under  the  rules 
laid  down  for  Diction. 

3.  The  sentences  should  be  closely  considered,  to  see  whether 
they  conform  to  all  the  principles  that  govern  the  Formation  of 
Sentences. 

4.  The  figures  of  speech  should  be  examined  to  see  that  they 
are  well  conceived  and  appropriate. 


THE    PLAN.  273 

5.  In  criticising  the  illustrations  and  quotations,  one  should 
inquire  whether  they  bring  out  or  enforce  the  exact  points  that 
are  to  be  made  clear  or  prominent. 

6.  No  word  or  form  of  expression  should  be  repeated  so  fre- 
quently as  to  make  the  style  stiff  or  monotonous. 

7.  The  sentences  must  be  smoothly  and  logically  connected 
with  one  another,  and  properly  marked  off  into  paragraphs. 

8.  The  paragraphs  must  be  joined  so  as  not  to  break  up  the 
continuity  of  the  writing. 


LESSON    XLIV. 

PRACTICE   IN   COMPOSITION.  — A   PARAGRAPH. 

As  we  have  previously  seen,  the  paragraph  is  a  complete  com- 
position. Now,  all  discourse  consists  only  of  a  number  of  para- 
graphs, properly  arranged  and  connected  ;  hence,  when  a  person 
has  learned  to  write  one  paragraph  correctly,  he  has  in  some  sense 
mastered  the  art  of  composition. 

Since  the  paragraph  is  the  next  larger  division  of  discourse  after 
the  sentence,  it  follows  that,  when  one  has  learned  how  to  write  a 
sentence,  the  next  step  is  to  learn  how  to  form  a  paragraph. 

In  order  to  make  this  part  of  the  subject  as  practical  as  possi- 
ble, it  is  proposed  to  go  through  the  construction  of  a  number  of 
paragraphs,  as  produced  in  the  ordinary  course  of  school  work. 

First  Ex.\mple. 

The  class  are  requested  to  write  a  paragraph  of  four  or  five  sen- 
tences on  "  The  Importance  of  Farming."  To  assist  them  the 
following  hints  are  given  :  — 

1.  The  paragraph  is  to  consist  of  three  parts  :  a  topic  sentence, 
reasons  why  "farming  is  important,"  and  a  conclusion. 

2.  As  the  first  sentence  contains  the  general  statement,   the 


274  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

thought  has  not  to  be  sought  for ;  the  form  of  expression  is  all 
that  is  necessary  to  find. 

3.  The  body  of  the  paragraph  will  contain  the  statements  that 
go  to  establish  the  topic,  to  illustrate,  or  to  enforce  it. 

4.  To  find  these  ask  yourself,  To  whom  is  it  important?  How 
is  it  important?  Why  is  it  important?  How  can  I  illustrate  each 
or  any  of  these  points  ? 

5.  Lastly  will  come  a  reflection  forming  the  conclusion. 

After  all  the  exercises  are  brought  in,  read,  and  marked,  two  are 
selected,  placed  on  the  blackboard,  and  criticised  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  class.  Then  these  two  paragraphs  are  given  to  the 
whole  class  to  study,  correct,  and  return. 

The  marks  on  the  margin  are  made  to  indicate  the  suggestions 
for  improvement. 

First  Paragraph. 

*  Cap    P  Farming  is  An  Important  industry 

D                 ^  It  is  well  known  to  every  person  that  "farming 

W  is  one  of  the  best  industries  in  the  world.     It 

W           D  is  an  employment  for  the  poor  laboring  men 

D  during  the  year.     It  increases  navigation  very 

K  Ex     much    by   shipping   grain   to    other   countries 

W  where  they  grow  none.     It  provides  food  and 

St           Cap  Gr     other  things  that  are  necessary  to  keep  us,  if 

D  it  was  not  for  the  farmers  how  would  the  city 

W           P  or  town  people  live.     Since  farming  is  the  best 

D            W  industry  going  the  people  that  are  not  farmers 

C  should  help  the  farmers  as  much  as  they  could. 

*  For  explanation  of  the  symbols  used,  see  "  Correcting  Compositions,"  below. 


11 

w 

w 

p 

D 

Cn 

D 

p 

^V 

W 

p 

W 

Cap 

P 

W 

11 

Gr 

P 

W 

THE    PLAN.  275 

Second  Paragraph. 
C-cip  Farming  is  An  Important  Industry. 

Farming  is  an  important  industry  not  only 
to  the  farmer,  but  to  the  whole  community. 
The  farmer  not  only  works  for  himself  as  some 
stingy  men  do  who  despise  the  farmer,  but  he 
works  for  the  benefit  of  others.     It  has  been 

D  well  said  that  the  farmer  is  a  slave  and  also  a 
patriot  to  his  country.    The  farmer  is  the  chief 

D  member  of  business  and  as  the  mainspring  of 
a  watch  keeps  the  other  members  in  motion 
so  the  farmer  by  his  incessant  toil  keeps  the 
business  world  in  motion.  Thus  we  see,  if  it 
was  not  for  the  farmer  the  world  would  soon 
be  in  a  sad  condition. 

The  following  are  two  of  those  returned. 

First  Paragr4ph  Rewritten. 

Farming  is  an  Important  Industry. 

Farming  is  one  of  the  chief  industries  in  the  world.  It  fur- 
nishes employment  for  laboring  men.  It  increases  the  commerce, 
the  wealth,  and  the  power  of  a  country.  For  example,  the  ship- 
ping trade  exists  chiefly  to  carry  produce  from  one  country  to 
another.  By  it,  food  and  other  necessaries  of  life  are  supplied. 
If  it  were  not  for  the  farmer  how  would  the  city  people  live? 
Since  farming  is  so  important,  it  should  receive  every  encourage- 
ment from  the  State. 

Second  Paragraph  Rewritten. 

Farming  is  an  Important  Industry. 

Farming  is  an  important  industry  not  only  to  the  farmer,  but  to 
the  entire  community.  The  farmer  works  both  for  himself  and 
for  others.     His  is  the  foundation  of  almost  every  other  industry. 


2/6  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

As  the  mainspring  of  a  watch  keeps  the  other  parts  in  motion, 
so  the  farmer  by  his  incessant  toil  keeps  the  business  world 
moving.  Indeed,  it  has  been  well  said,  "  The  farmer  is  a  slave 
and  a  patriot  to  his  country."  So  we  see,  if  it  were  not  for  the 
farmer,  all  other  industries  would  soon  come  to  a  stand-still. 

Second  Example. 

In  this  instance  the  theme,  "Why  is  Labor  Necessary?"  is 
given  to  the  class  with  the  same  general  instructions.  The  ques- 
tion. What  shall  form  the  subordinate  heads  of  the  paragraph? 
is  then  discussed.  It  is  asked,  Why  is  labor  necessary  ?  Various 
answers  are  given.  These  are  all  written  down,  and  from  among 
them  the  following  are  selected  as  subordinate  heads  :  — 

1.  In  order  to  obtain  a  living. 

2.  For  the  promotion  of  health. 

3.  To  bring  forth  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 

4.  To  develop  manufactures  and  arts. 

Of  the  paragraphs  written,  one  is  here  selected.  It  is  marked 
as  in  the  margin,  and  returned  to  be  rewritten.  Below  are  the 
original  and  the  improved  copy. 

Original  Paragraph. 

IV/iy  Labor  is  Necessary. 

W             St  There  are  many  reasons  why  every  one  must 

P  do  a  certain  amount  of  labor.      In  the  first 

C  place  there  are  a  great  many  people  who  could 

Trt  not  obtain  a  livelihood  were  it  not  for  the  work 

D     P     W       Gr  we  do,  and  to  these  idleness  would  mean  pov- 

St     P  erty  and  perhaps  starvation.     In  the  next  place 

Too  formal       P  Ind  it  is  csscntial  to  good  health  and  happiness. 

Happiness  is  de-       f  for  the  most  miserable  persons  are   generally 

pendent  on  health.        I  fQm^d  to  be  those  who  are  most  inclined  to 

"  For,"  etc.,  is  not  -^i,.  -^^•^  i-  !_ 

a  reason  for  what  iJ  lazincss.  Bcsidcs  this,  much  labor  must  be 
precedes.  w  L  performed   before    the    earth  gives    forth   her 


THE    PLAN,  277 

"  for,"  etc.,  not  a  reason,  increase,  for  manufactures  and  agriculture  can- 
Already  included  s  not  bc  Carried  on  without  the  constant  employ- 
P  ment  of  large  numbers  of  men.  Thus  it  would 
W  of  same  «^tr^""  be  impossiblc  to  live  were  it  not  for  the  labor 
of  some,  and  impossible  to  enjoy  life  unless  we 
W     S      Inc  ourselves  do  a  certain  amount  of  work. 

Rfavritten. 

IV/iy  Labor  is  Necessary. 

There  are  various  reasons  why  every  one  must  labor.  In  the 
first  place,  most  people  are  dependent  on  their  own  exertions  for 
a  livelihood ;  to  them  idleness  means  poverty,  and  perhaps  star- 
vation. Further,  our  bodies  are  so  formed  that  they  cannot  be 
vigorous  unless  employed  in  labor,  either  voluntary  or  enforced. 
Labor  is,  therefore,  essential  to  health,  the  great  source  of  happi- 
ness ;  indeed,  the  idle  are  the  most  miserable,  both  in  body  and 
in  mind.  Besides,  much  labor  must  be  performed  before  the 
earth  will  yield  her  increase ;  nor  can  manufactures,  or,  in  short, 
any  industry  be  carried  on  without  the  continued  toil  of  large 
numbers  of  men.  Thus,  it  would  be  impossible  to  live  without  the 
labor  of  the  many,  and  equally  impossible  to  enjoy  hfe  without 
doing  some  kind  of  work. 

EXERCISE  XC. 

Writing  Paragraphs. 

Direction.  —  Note  the  directions  given  in  the  preceding  Lesson,  and  then 
write  a  paragraph  on  each  of  the  following  subjects.  Lay  your  exercise  aside, 
and  the  next  day  criticise  it  closely  under  Diction,  Formation  of  Sentences, 
Construction  of  Paragraphs.  After  this  is  done,  write  it  over,  inserting  your 
emendations. 

1.  Pleasures  of  Spring. 

2.  The  Evil  of  War. 

3.  Unity  is  Strength. 

4.  The  Importance  of  the  Period  of  Youth. 


278  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

5.  The  Difference  between  Labor  and  Exercise. 

6.  We  need  Rest. 

7.  The  Benefit  of  Adversity. 

8.  Flattery  is  Agreeable. 

9.  Money  is  a  good  Friend. 

10.  Virtue  is  its  own  Reward. 

11.  All  the  World  is  a  Prison. 

12.  Silence  is  Golden. 

13.  Time  is  Money. 

14.  The  study  of  English. 

15.  Character  is  the  Valuable  Possession. 


LESSON    XLV. 

PRACTICE   IN    COMPOSITION.  — A   THEME. 

Having  in  the  preceding  Lesson  obtained  an  idea  of  how  to  con- 
struct a  paragraph,  we  may  now  attempt  a  complete  theme,  or 
collection  of  paragraphs.  In  doing  so,  we  follow  a  class  through 
this  greater  effort.  The  subject  chosen  is  "  Cheerfulness  is  pro- 
ductive of  Happiness."  To  assist  in  making  the  framework,  the 
following  suggestions  are  made  :  — 

1.  The  essay,  like  the  paragraphs  already  written,  consists  of 
three  parts  :   Introduction,  Discussion,  Conclusion. 

2.  The  first  and  last  part  may  be  one  short  paragraph  each,  the 
second  may  consist  of  several  paragraphs. 

3.  The  Introduction  and  Conclusion  may  be  written  as  sug- 
gested in  Lesson  XL. 

4.  The  proposition  is  submitted  to  be  estabhshed  by  reasons. 
We  must,  therefore,  search  for  such  as  will  support  the  statement. 
The  chief  question  to  keep  before  the  mind  is,  How? 

5.  To  find  reasons,  turn  the  subject  over  and  over  in  your  mind, 
asking  yourself,  "  How  is  cheerfulness  conducive  to  happiness?" 


THE    PLAN.  279 

Read  anything  you  can  find  that  in  any  way  bears  upon  the  sub- 
ject.    Note  down  any  thoughts  as  soon  as  you  get  them. 

6.  After  the  thoughts  are  noted  down,  select  such  as  you  think 
suitable,  and  arrange  them  in  order. 

The  following  is  one  of  the  frameworks  brought  in. 

Theme  :    Cheerfulness  is  Pnniuetivc  of  Happitiess. 

Framework. 

1.  Introduction  :   The  general  statement. 
11.    Discussion: — ■ 

Reasons  :  — 

1.  A  cheerful  man  expects  to  find  others  cheerful. 

2.  The  heart  becomes  light. 

3.  It  fits  one  for  social  life. 

4.  It  tends  to  make  others  happy. 

5.  Sorrow  is  banished. 

6.  Thought  of  sliglits  or  insults  in  mere  jokes  is  ex- 

pelled. 

ni.   Conclusion  :   Let  us  endeavor  to  be  cheerful. 

This  framework  is  placed  on  the  blackboard  and  carefully  exam- 
ined with  the  assistance  of  the  class.  It  is  then  given  to  the  class 
to  study  and  bring  back  improved. 

Below  are  the  suggestions  for  improvement. 

I;  Divide  the  Introduction  into  two  parts,  an  introductory  sen- 
tence and  a  fuller  statement  of  the  theme. 

2.  Reason  No.  i.  "What  a  man  expects  to  find"  is  not  a 
reason  why  "Cheerfulness  is  productive  of  happiness." 

3.  No.  2.     This,  although  poorly  expressed,  is  a  good  reason. 

4.  No.  3.  As  the  pleasures  of  social  life  are  among  the  chief 
sources  of  our  happiness,  whatever  fits  us  for  that  life,  enhances 
our  happiness.      Express  this  "  reason  "  better. 

5.  No.  4  might  be  used  in  showing  how  cheerfulness  indirectly 
contributes  to  happiness. 


280  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

6.  No.  5  may  be  worked  in  with  No.  2. 

7.  No.  6  will  have  to  be  thrown  out,  as  it  does  not  bear  directly 
on  the  theme.  It  may  perhaps  be  used  somewhere  as  an  illus- 
tration. 

From  the  complete  frameworks  returned  the  following  is  selected 
and  given  to  the  class  to  be  written  out. 

Theme  :    Cliccrftilness  is  Productive  of  Happiness. 

Framework. 
I.    Introduction:    i.   An  introductory  sentence. 

2.    A  fuller  statement  of  the  subject. 
II.   Discussion  :  — 
Reasons  :  — 

1.  Cheerfulness  fits  us  for  the  enjoyment  of  social  life. 

2.  It  tends  to  lighten  the  sorrows  of  life. 

3.  It  promotes  health. 

III.    Conclusion  :   Let  us  endeavor  to  be  cheerful. 

Written  out. 

Cheerfulness  is  Productive  of  Happiness. 

P  Cheerfulness  is  like   a  sunny  day,  it  sheds 

DA         D         its  brightness  on  everything  round  about  us. 
No  trait  of  character  is  more  valuable  or  more 
is        P  productive  of  happiness  than  cheerfulness.     It 

W       P  lightens  our  burdens,  makes  friends  and  pro- 

motes our  health. 
Cn  Be  cheerful,  for  it  is  the  only  way  to  live  a 

P  happy  life.    Times  may  be  bad  but  it  will  make 

D  them  no  easier  to  wear  a  gloomy  and  sad  coun- 

D        W  tenance.    It  is  not  the  clouds,  but  sunshine  that 

S  makes  the  flowers.     We  all  have  troubles  and 

Trt  perhaps  it  is  well  that  we  should,  for  it  gives 

us  power  and  increases  our  courage  if  we  cheer- 


THE    PLAN. 


281 


D 


Cn 

No  topic  sentence. 


c 


c 


D 


K 


Complete  the 
Simile  and  Ex. 


c 


Trt  in  Expression. 


fully  grapple  with  every  obstacle  that  may  come 
in  our  way.  It  is  a  dull  sea  that  makes  un- 
skilled sailors.  It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  every 
man  to  extract  all  the  happiness  and  enjoyment 
from  life  he  can.  To  meet  this  end  and  pur- 
pose he  must  not  go  about  hanging  his  head, 
but  cultivate  a  warm  and  genial  disposition.) 

There  are  some  men  who  are  inclined  to 
look  always  on  the  gloomy  side  of  everything, 
searching  all  the  troubles  they  can  find,  while 
on  the  other  hand  there  are  some  natures  so 
constituted  that  they  can  find  good  in  every- 
thing. The  latter  considered  in  the  relation 
to  his  fellow-men  with  whom  he  comes  in  daily 
contact,  is  productive  of  love  and  good  will 
towards  all.  The  man  who  is  possessed  of 
this  excellent  frame  of  mind  is  not  only  free 
and  easy  in  his  conversation  and  thought,  but 
his  imagination  and  judgment  are  always  clear 
and  undisturbed,  causing  every  person  to  court 
his  company.  A  cheerful  man  is  not  only  dis- 
posed to  be  polite  and  obliging  but  it  raises 
the  same  good  humor  in  those  who  come  under 
his  influence  ;  his  companions  feel  drawn  to- 
wards him  they  know  not  why.  Like  the  soft 
rain  gently  penetrating  the  soil  his  influence 
finds  its  way  to  his  associates. 

Cheerfulness  not  only  casts  ofl"  gloom,  but 
it  helps  to  promote  health.  It  is  seldom 
found  where  there  is  not  a  certain  degree  of 
health,  but  very  often  it  is  found  where  there 
is  not  a  great  degree  of  health.  There  is  no 
use  of  repining  and  mourning  over  our  condi- 
tion in  time  of  afflictions,  for  if  we  give  away 
to  our  feelings  we  encourage  the  malady,  while 


252  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

if  we  brace  up  we  banish  all  those  discontented 
passions  and  soothe  our  spirits.     Cheerfulness 
bears  the  same  effect  on  the  mind  as  to  the 
C  body.      If  we  have   troubles  or  worries   and 

continually  harbor  them  in  our  mind,  we  cause 
W  our   mental    calibre    to   become    languid   and 

Give  both  parts  of  the  ^^^11;  SO  if  we  keep  in  mind  our  bodily  afflic- 
baiance  the  same  form,  tious  wc  cause  a  jar  to  the  delicatc  fibres  of 
which  our  body  is  composed.  On  the  con- 
trary if  we  banish  all  thoughts  of  our  ailments 
or  troubles,  we  raise  our  spirits  and  promote 
our  health. 

Seeing  that  cheerfulness  is  productive  of  so 
much  happiness,  let  us  all  endeavor,  no  matter 
how  dark  the  gloom  may  be,  to  help  at  least  to 
D  brighten  it  by  our  smiles  and  cheerfulness. 

Rewritten. 

Cheerfulness  is  like  a  sunny  day ;  it  sheds  brightness  on  every- 
thing around  us.  No  trait  of  character  is  more  valuable  or  more 
productive  of  happiness  than  is  cheerfulness ;  it  lightens  our 
burdens,  multiplies  our  friends,  and  promotes  our  health. 

First,  cheerfulness  may  do  much  to  lighten  our  burdens  and 
thereby  make  life  happy.  Times  may  be  hard,  but  wearing  a  sad 
and  gloomy  countenance  will  make  them  no  easier.  It  is  not 
clouds,  but  sunshine  that  brings  out  the  flowers.  Sorrows  will 
surely  come,  but,  brightened  by  the  hopeful  views  of  a  cheerful 
disposition,  they  appear  less  fearful  and  depressing.  Cheerfulness 
makes  the  air  seem  more  balmy,  the  sky  clearer,  and  even  the 
sunshine  more  beautiful ;  while  gloominess  is  a  mildew  that  bhghts 
our  talents,  blasts  our  happiness,  and  beclouds  our  life. 

Again,  social  intercourse  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  our 
earthly  happiness ;  and  nothing  so  well  fits  us  for  the  enjoyment 
of  that  intercourse  as  cheerfulness.     The  possessor  of  this  frame  of 


THE    PLAN.  283 

mind  is  not  only  free  and  easy  in  his  conversation  and  manner, 
but  has  his  imagination  clear  and  his  judgment  undisturbed.  He 
is  disposed  to  be  polite  and  obliging,  and  naturally  awakens  similar 
feelings  in  those  with  whom  he  comes  in  contact.  As  the  soft 
rain,  falling  gently  on  the  earth,  penetrates  the  soil  and  endues  all 
nature  with  freshness  and  beauty,  so  the  influence  of  his  genial 
disposition  permeates  all  hearts  and  fills  them  with  joy  and  glad- 
ness. In  this  atmosphere  of  happiness  that  he  has  created  he 
breathes  the  sweetest  joys  of  life. 

Cheerfulness  not  only  lightens  the  burdens  of  life  and  increases 
social  pleasures,  but  it  also  promotes  health.  Cheerfulness  affects 
beneficially  not  the  mind  alone,  but  likewise  the  body.  If  in 
ill-health,  we  give  way  to  repining,  we  encourage  the  malady ; 
while  if  we  brace  up,  we  banish  our  fretful  passions  and  with  them 
a  large  part  of  our  trouble.  If  we  continually  worry  over  our 
sorrows,  we  cause  our  mental  faculties  to  become  dull  and  lan- 
guid ;  so,  if  we  keep  in  mind  our  bodily  afflictions,  we  impercepti- 
bly injure  the  delicate  fibres  of  which  our  bodies  are  composed. 
On  the  contrary,  if  we  banish  all  thoughts  of  our  ailments,  or 
troubles,  we  raise  our  spirits  and  promote  our  health. 

Seeing,  then,  that  cheerfulness  is  productive  of  so  much  happi- 
ness, let  us  all  endeavor,  no  matter  how  dark  the  gloom  may  be, 
to  help  to  brighten  it  by  our  smiles. 


EXERCISE    XCI. 

Themes. 

Direction.  —  Make  a  framework  on  the  following  topics,  as  illustrated  in 
the  preceding  Lesson;  revise  it;  write  out;  revise  your  composition  thoroughly; 
write  in  between  the  lines  all  the  emendations  you  cen;  tinally,  rewrite  the 
whole. 

1.  The  benefits  of  gardening. 

2.  The  use  of  the  rain. 

3.  The  pleasures  of  a  well  informed  mind.    . 

4.  Why  we  should  resist  the  beginnings  of  evil. 


284  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

5.  Why  the  wealthy  are  influential. 

6.  The  advantages  of  shrewdness. 

7.  Why  we  should  not  kill  little  birds. 

8.  We  should  not  waste  time. 

9.  The  schoolmaster's  place  in  society. 

10.  It  is  more  profitable  to  publish  books  than  to  write  them. 


LESSON    XLVI. 

KINDS   OF   DISCOURSE. 

Prose  embraces  all  kinds  of  composition  not  in  verse.  As  we 
have  already  seen,  the  grand  formal  distinction  between  poetry 
and  prose  is  metre.  Metrical  arrangement  is  effected  largely  by 
inversion  of  the  natural  or  grammatical  order  of  the  words  and 
other  parts  of  the  sentence.  As  inversion  is  the  characteristic  of 
poetic  order,  so  directness  is  the  chief  feature  of  prose  arrange- 
ment. Prose,  however,  is  not  confined  to  the  strict  grammatical 
order,  but  is  allowed  to  deviate  from  it  for  the  sake  of  clearness, 
force,  or  beauty. 

Varieties. — The  chief  varieties  of  composition  are,  —  Narra- 
tion, Description,  Exposition,  Argumentation,  Oratory,  and  Poetry. 

Narration. 

Narration  presents  a  succession  of  events  in  the  order  of  time, 
or  with  special  reference  to  time.  The  aim  of  the  narrative  writer 
should  be  to  make  the  reader  an  eye-witness,  as  it  were,  of  the 
events  narrated. 

Under  Narration  maybe  classed,  —  History,  Annals,  Chronicles, 
Memoirs,  Biography,  Diary,  Travels,  News,  and  Fiction. 

Kinds  of  Narration.  —  i.  jjUsiQRXj.  in  its  broadest  accepta- 
tion, is  a  formal  and  connected  account  of  the  fife  of  a  nation. 
Every  age  has  had  its  theory  of  what  history  should  be.     This  has 


NARRATION. 


285 


varied  from  a  mere  catalogue  of  events  to  the  modern  idea  that 
history  should  contain  not  only  a  narrative  of  events,  but  also  a 
philosophic  analysis  of  motive  and  action,  as  well  as  a  clear  inter- 
pretation of  cause  and  effect. 

2.  Annals  are  a  bare  record  of  public  events,  written  down  from 
year  to  year. 

3.  Chronicles  are  also  a  primitive  kind  of  history.  They  con- 
sist of  a  narrative  of  affairs  of  state,  somewhat  more  extensive  than 
annals,  but  with  strict  attention  to  chronological  order. 

4.  Memoirs  is  a  term  applied  chiefly  to  the  relation  of  events 
that  have  come  within  the  writer's  personal  knowledge.  In  the 
higher  forms  it  deals  with  topics  that  belong  to  the  province  of 
history.  It  does  not,  however,  pretend  to  be  a  systematic  record, 
but  rather  a  conversational  account  of  matters  of  greater  or  less 
importance. 

5.  Biography  is  the  history  of  an  individual  life.  When  written 
by  the  person  himself,  it  is  called  Autobiography.  The  biography 
of  prominent  men  often  entails  much  of  the  history  of  their  times. 
A  short  biography  is  called  a  Memoir. 

6.  Diary  is  a  daily  record  of  a  person's  life.  It  resembles 
Autobiography,  but  differs  from  it  in  that  it  deals  with  the  events 
of  only  one  day  at  a  time.  Moreover,  it  is  not  intended  to  be 
seen  by  any  one  except  the  writer. 

7.  Travels  contain  an  account  of  what  a  person  sees  or  learns 
from  day  to  day  on  his  journey  through  foreign  countries.  They 
consist  largely  of  description,  and  ought  to  be  clear  and  accurate. 

8.  News,  an  account  of  events  of  all  kinds  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  is  at  present  one  of  the  most  common  kinds  of  writing. 
Though  it  may  not  strictly  deserve  the  name  of  literature,  yet 
much  skill  and  experience  are  required  to  write  it  with  the  neces- 
sary clearness,  brevity,  and  accuracy. 

9.  Fiction  resembles  biography,  but  differs  from  it  in  that  the 
matter  is  invented  by  the  writer.  Though  the  incidents  it  nar- 
rates never  actually  occurred,  and  the  persons  whose  lives  and 
characters  it  describes  never  lived,  yet  they  are  types  of  what  did 


286  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

exist  at  the  time  and  under  the  circumstances  indicated.  It  is 
true  to  nature. 

Fiction  may  be  divided  into  the  Romance  and  the  Novel. 

The  Romance  is  a  kind  of  Fiction  in  which  the  incidents  are 
of  an  extravagant  and  improbable  character. 

The  Novel  is  of  two  kinds,  —  the  Historical  Novel  and  the 
Domestic  Novel.  In  the  former,  historical  characters  are  made  to 
take  part  in  the  supposed  incidents.  Scott's  novels  are  a  good 
example.  In  the  latter  domestic  life  and  character  are  depicted 
in  minute  detail.  There  is  always  a  plot,  and  in  its  development 
the  passions,  particularly  love,  play  an  important  part. 

The  purpose  of  Fiction  is  manifold.  It  may  aim  at  teaching 
history,  at  conveying  some  doctrine,  enforcing  some  moral  or 
religious  views,  making  the  reader  acquainted  with  the  customs 
and  modes  of  life  of  by-gone  days,  or  of  merely  giving  pleasure 
by  the  excitement  of  plot,  the  beauty  of  language,  and  the  charm 
of  description. 

Principles.  —  In  Narration  there  are  certain  principles  that 
should  be  observed. 

1.  The  events  should  be  placed  before  the  reader  as  he  would 
have  seen  them  had  he  been  present. 

2.  Every  fact  or  event  should  be  made  to  grow  out  of  some- 
thing previous.  In  fiction  this  principle  is  often  violated  for  the 
purpose  of  creating  a  more  intense  interest  in  the  plot. 

3.  The  entire  narration  should  centre  in  one  principal  action  or 
event.  Where  this  is  not  possible  for  the  whole,  as  in  history,  then 
each  distinct  part  should  be  formed  on  this  principle. 

4.  Where  there  are  simultaneous  trains  of  action,  there  should, 
generally,  be  a  principal  one,  and  such  subordinate  ones  as  are  nat- 
urally connected  with  it  as  causes,  consequences,  or  circumstances. 

5.  When  there  are  several  streams  of  events  of  nearly  equal 
importance,  the  ordinary  method  is  to  carry  one  up  to  a  certain 
point,  and  then  return  to  bring  up  the  others,  one  by  one,  to  the 
same  date.  This  must  be  repeated  to  the  end  of  the  whole. 
Every  reader  of  fiction  will  have  noticed  this  method. 


NARRATION.  28/ 

6.  The  scene  and  the  actors  should  be  changed  as  seldom  as 
possible ;  and  when  such  a  change  is  made,  attention  should  be 
called  to  the  fact.     This  rule  does  not  hold  in  fiction. 

7.  In  addition  to  the  general  rules  laid  down  above,  the  follow- 
ing points  may  be  noted  respecting  history  :  — 

a.  As  many  features  have  to  be  detailed,  such  as  the  progress 
of  the  arts  and  sciences,  the  development  of  literature,  the  advance- 
ment of  morality,  and  the  delineation  of  character,  the  writer  is  com- 
pelled to  take  up  these  various  topics  one  by  one  and  complete 
each  singly,  or,  at  least,  carry  it  through  a  certain  period. 

b.  History  must  be  systematic  and  complete  ;  the  plan  must 
show  the  unity  of  the  whole  and  at  the  same  time  give  every  part 
its  proper  setting. 

c.  It  is  essential  that  the  order  of  time  be  clearly  followed,  and 
that  the  dates  should  be  so  interwoven  with  the  narrative  as  to 
form  a  definite  framework  on  which  to  hang  the  events. 

d.  To  give  the  reader  a  clear  insight  into  the  situation  of  affairs, 
the  historian  often  goes  backward  and  recounts  the  preceding  cir- 
cumstances. 

e.  Again,  for  clearness  and  for  aid  to  the  memory,  he  makes 
frequent  summaries  of  the  events  which  he  has  related  in  detail. 
By  these  succinct  and  comprehensive  views,  the  mind  "is  assisted 
in  grasping  the  subject  as  a  whole. 

/,  In  the  delineation  of  character  the  historian  has  an  oppor- 
tunity to  vary  the  narrative  by  word-pictures  of  the  men  who  have 
fixed  the  destiny  of  the  nation. 

8.  The  narrator  should  not  attempt  to  relate  everything.  He 
should  give  the  salient  points,  and  leave  the  rest  to  the  reader  to 
supply. 

Style. — The  topics  of  narration  are  so  varied  that  no  absolute 
rules  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  language  to  be  employed.  It 
must,  however,  always  be  suited  to  the  subject  in  hand.  In  gen- 
eral, it  should  be  plain,  simple,  and  perspicuous.  In  history  it 
must  be  calm  and  dignified  ;  while  its  elegance  and  beauty  are 
among  the  most  engaging  charms  of  fiction.     When  the  subject 


288  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

will  allow,  the  style  may  rise  to  the  graceful,  the  flowing,  or  even 
to  the  elegant,  but  should  never  be  pompous  or  stilted,  or  in  any 
way  adapted  to  draw  off  the  attention  from  the  subject  to  itself. 

The  Parts. — The  Introduction  should  contain  such  particulars 
about  the  time,  place,  and  actors  or  events,  as  are  necessary  to 
place  the  subject  clearly  before  the  reader  and  to  awaken  his 
interest  in  it.     This  may  occupy  one  or  more  paragraphs. 

The  Discussion  contains  the  events  arranged  in  their  order  oi 
occurrence. 

In  the  Conclusion  will  come  the  result,  detailed  to  suit  the  special 
circumstances  of  the  case. 

Sometimes  no  formal  conclusion  is  required  ;  at  others,  a  sum- 
mary of  events  is  a  valuable  aid  to  the  memory. 

The  Paragraphs  should,  as  far  as  possible,  deal  each  with  a 
separate  part  of  the  relation,  and  should  be  so  connected  as  to 
carry  on  the  story  in  a  clear  and  connected  manner. 

Framework.  — As  Narration  consists  merely  in  a  presentation  of 
known  events  or  facts,  there  is  nothing  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  inven- 
tion (except  in  Fiction)  but  to  devise  the  method,  form,  and  style. 

Practice  in  Narration.  —  In  order  to  secure  practice  in  Nar- 
ration, a  story  may  be  selected  from  which  to  draw  up  a  frame- 
work. In  this  exercise  special  care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish 
between  the  leading  thoughts  and  the  subordinate  ones.  The  fob 
ing  is  an  example  from  Scott's  Talisman. 

Theme  :   The  Combat. 

Framework. 

I.   Introduction  :  — 

1.  Time,  Third  Crusade. 

2.  Place,  The  Diamond  of  the  Desert. 

3.  Persons,  Sir  Kenneth  and  Conrad. 

II.   Discussion  :  — 

I.   The  preparations. 

a.  Arming. 

b.  The  herald's  proclamation. 


NARRATION.  289 

c.  Taking  positions. 

cL  Tiie  invocation. 

2.   The  combat  proper. 

a.  The  signal. 

b.  The  start. 

c.  In  career. 

d.  The  shock  at  meeting. 

e.  Its  result. 

III.   Conclusion  :  The  effect  in  settling  the  dispute. 

As  a  more  difficult  exercise,  a  framework  may  be  constructed 
on  some  event  that  has  come  under  the  *learner's  notice  and  that 
has  not  yet  been  committed  to  writing.  Take  the  following  as  an 
example  :  — 

Theme  :  Hoiv  I  spent  the  Holidays. 

Framework. 
I.   Introduction  :  — 

1 .  Where. 

2.  With  whom. 
II.   Discussion  :  — 

How  we  spent  the  time. 

1.  In  boating. 

Incident  —  an  upset. 

2.  Trout-fishing. 

One  big  fish. 

3.  Riding. 

4.  In  the  woods. 

Incident  with  a  friendly  Indian. 

III.   Conclusion  :  What  I  learned,  and  how  much  my  health  was 
improved. 

Writing  out.  —  In  writing  out  these  outlines,  the  Introduction, 
the  Conclusion,  and  the  several  divisions  of  the  Discussion  may 
each  form  a  paragraph  ;  or,  when  it  is  desired  to  be  more  minute, 
each  of  these  may  form  several  paragraphs. 


290  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE   XCII. 

Narration. 

Direction.  —  Construct  a  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  the  following 
topics;   write  out  each  theme  in  full. 

1.  First  Week  at  High  School. 

2.  How  we  spent  Independence  Day. 

3.  Our  Experience  of  Camping  Out. 

4.  A  Fishing  Excursion. 

5.  The  Crossing  of  the  Red  Sea. 

6.  Our  Visit  to  a  Printing  Office. 

7.  How  the  Spring  came  on. 

8.  History  of  St.  Paul. 

9.  The  Story  of  a  Shilling. 

10.    A  Sail  down  the  Mississippi. 


LESSON    XLVII. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Description.  —  The  aim  of  the  descriptive  writer  is  to  present 
to  the  mind  by  means  of  language  such  an  idea  of  an  object  or 
scene  as  the  reader  would  have  conceived  had  he  viewed  it  him- 
self.    Description  is  word-painting. 

Kinds  of  Description. —Three  kinds  of  Description  maybe 
noted:  (i)  of  external  objects,  (2)  of  character,  (3)  of  feelings 
and  intellectual  processes. 

Principles.  —  In  the  description  of  external  scenes  or  objects, 
the  following  rules  will  be  found  useful :  — 

I .  It  is  important  to  place  at,  or  near,  the  beginning  a  compre- 
hensive statement  or  general  plan.  This  outline  should  be  clear 
and  simple.  For  example,  Victor  Hugo,  in  describing  the  battle 
of  Waterloo,  says,  "  It  was  fought  on  a  piece  of  ground  resembling 


DESCRIPTION.  291 

a  capital  A.  The  English  were  at  the  apex,  the  French  at  the 
feet,  and  the  battle  was  decided  about  the  centre." 

a.  The  idea  of  the  general  plan  may  be  furnished  by  indicating 
the  form  or  by  stating  the  size. 

l>.  It  may  be  shown  by  arranging  the  parts  as  radiating  from  a 
common  centre,  or  as  branching  put  from  a  main  trunk. 

2.  A  description  should  be  made  from  a  favorable  point  of 
view. 

a.  Sometimes  the  whole  object  or  scene  may  be  described  from 
one  standpoint,  as  the  painter  draws  his  picture. 

b.  Sometimes  the  scene  may  be  presented  in  a  succession  of 
aspects,  as  it  would  appear  to  a  person  if  he  were  moving  along 
through  it. 

Example.  —  If  one  is  to  describe  a  town  he  may  first  take  up 
his  position  at  the  central  square,  or  at  the  head  of  the  principal 
street.  Thence,  he  pictures  the  direction  of  the  main  street  or 
streets,  and  gives  an  outline  of  the  whole.  Next,  he  may  locate 
the  parks  and  chief  public  buildings.  Having  thus  established  a 
lucid  outline,  he  may  adopt  the  traveller's  method,  and,  starting 
from  the  centre  or  from  the  main  street,  he  may  go  along  each 
street,  describing  its  buildings  in  detail. 

3.  In  describing  a  person,  the  form  may  first  be  outlined,  then 
the  features  may  be  described,  lastly  the  dress  and  ornaments. 
See  the  description  of  "  Rebecca"  on  page  243. 

4.  In  delineating  character,  some  general  or  comprehensive 
statements  may  first  be  made.  Then  the  various  qualities  of  the 
character  may  be  taken  up  separately  ;  the  moral,  the  intellectual, 
the  social.  In  a  public  man  his  capacity  for  performing  civic  or 
national  functions,  as  that  of  general  or  statesman,  will  form  parts 
of  the  description. 

5.  Our  feelings  and  intellectual  operations  are  less  easily  de- 
scribed than  objects  of  sense.  The  former  may  be  described  by 
likenesses,  comparisons,  analogies.  "  His  wrath  broke  forth  Hke 
flames  from  a  furnace."  "  T.ove  though  deep  as  the  sea,  shall  fade 
away  like  autumn  leaves."     They  may  also  be  suggested  by  their 


292  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

visible  manifestations.  Anger  may  be  indicated  by  "  the  curling 
lip  "  and  "  the  frowning  brow,"  by  violence  of  language,  or  by 
rashness  of  action. 

6.  The  details  must  be  systematically  grouped.  In  describing 
external  objects,  they  may  be  arranged  one  after  another  as  they 
appear  in  nature,  or  they  may  be  grouped  about  some  central 
point.  In  delineating  character,  in  sketching  mental  operations, 
or  in  the  expression  of  feeling,  they  must  be  placed  according  to 
importance  or  effect. 

In  filling  in  the  details,  the  writer  should  attempt  to  form  a 
clear  conception  of  each  part,  and  then  to  select  the  most  striking 
or  interesting  features.     It  is  a  mistake  to  try  to  tell  everything. 

7.  Description  is  made  more  striking  and  realistic  by  being  in- 
dividualized, that  is,  given  at  a  particular  time  and  under  the  cir- 
cumstances of  a  stated  moment.  If  not  so  made,  it  is  as  sure  to 
be  confused  as  the  photograph  of  a  moving  object  taken  by  the 
old  process.  For  example,  a  description  of  Spring  might  be  taken 
in  the  morning,  when  the  sun  is  well  up,  when  the  birds  are  sing- 
ing, and  when  all  nature  has  on  its  richest  garb. 

8.  A  still  further  gain  is  made  by  introducing  such  associated 
circumstances  as  make  the  picture  complete  without  overcrowding 
it.     See  page  237. 

This  gain  is  still  greater  when  the  associated  ideas  consist  in 
attributing  human  feelings  to  natural  objects.  We  are  more  inter- 
ested in  anything  that  is  supposed  to  be  of  "  like  passions  with 
ourselves,"  than  in  objects  that  appear  totally  unlike  us. 

9.  Much  of  the  so-called  exposition  in  the  Sciences  might  more 
correctly  be  classed  as  description.  Its  special  feature  is  that  it 
makes  us  acquainted  with  an  object  by  analyzing  it,  by  describing 
each  part  minutely,  by  showing  us  the  connection  of  the  parts, 
and  the  result  of  their  union.  For  example,  Botany  describes  a 
flower  by  taking  it  to  pieces,  and  showing  us  the  delicate  forma- 
tion of  each  part,  its  connection  with  others,  and  its  place  and 
function  in  the  complete  flower. 

10.  Poetry  adopts  a  method  of  description  different  from  that 


DESCRIPTION.  293 

pursued  in  prose.  As  its  object  is  not  to  convey  exact  informa- 
tion, but  to  please,  scenes  and  objects  are  not  described  with 
mathematical  precision,  but  are  presented  by  a  few  bold  strokes, 
pictorial  epithets,  or  fertile  suggestions.  For  example,  Longfellow, 
in  describing  the  situation  of  the  "  httle  village,"  puts  the  land- 
scape before  the  reader  by  a  picturesque  presentation  of  a  few 
prominent  features:  "vast  meadows,"  "flocks  without  number," 
"  dikes  raised  with  labor  incessant,"  and  so  on.  When  he  is  tell- 
ing the  numbers  that  came  at  the  command  of  the  English  general, 
he  suggests  it  by  such  strokes  as  "  Every  house  was  an  inn." 

II.  Under  the  head  of  Picturesqueness  will  be  found  several 
suggestions  that  indicate  how  description  may  be  made  clear, 
striking,  and  complete. 

Style. — As  description  forms  a  large  part  of  all  composition, 
and  embraces  so  great  a  diversity  of  subjects,  it  admits  of  almost 
every  variety  of  language  and  style,  and  allows  the  widest  scope 
for  ornament  and  beauty.  If  the  object  treated  is  humble,  the 
language  may  be  familiar ;  if  it  is  grand,  the  language  may  be  ele- 
vated ;  if  it  is  characterized  by  great  beauty,  then  the  language 
may  assume  its  richest  garb.  The  style  must  be  adapted  to  the 
nature  of  the  object  described. 

Framework.  —  Though  the  framework  may  consist  of  three 
distinct  parts,  yet  the  discussion  will  vary  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  subject.  It  should  be  clearly  and  systematically  arranged 
before  writing  is  begun. 

Theme  :   77?.?  Thermometer. 

Framework. 
I.   Introduction  :  — 

1.  All  substances  produce  the  sensation  of  heat  or  cold. 

2.  Heat  and  cold  vary — ■  water. 

3.  Our  sense  of  feeling  does  not  give  true  or  accurate  in- 

formation about  temperature. 

4.  Hence  the  need  of  an  exact  measure  \  this  furnished 

by  the  thermometer 


294  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

II.    Discussion  :  — 

1.  Invention. 

a.  The  expanding  and  shrinking  of  bodies  had  long 

been  noticed. 

b.  This  suggested  the  thermometer. 

2.  Construction. 

a.  A  hollow  tube  with  bulb. 

b.  The  bulb  is  filled  with  mercury. 

c.  A  vacuum  is  left  above. 

d.  How  the  measuring  is  done. 

{a)    The  tube  is  fixed  in  a  marked  plate. 
{b)    The  degrees  are  counted  upwards. 

e.  How  the  scale  is  made. 

(«)    The  tube  is  immersed  in  melting  ice  for 

the  freezing-point. 
{b^    Plunged  in  steam  for  the  boiling-point. 
{c)    The  intervening  space  divided  into  equal 
spaces. 
III.   Conclusion  :  Its  uses. 

a.  To  compare  the  heat  of  different  climates. 

b.  In  the  arts. 

EXERCISE  XCIII. 

Description. 

Direction.  — Construct  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  the  following 
topics,  and  then  write  out  each  theme  in  full. 

1.  Your  School-house. 

2.  A  Snow-storm.   . 

3.  The  Thousand  Islands. 

4.  The  Falls  of  Niagara. 

5.  A  Modern  Newspaper. 

6.  A  Railway. 

7.  Your  own  Town. 

8.  Your  own  State. 


9- 

The  Alhambra. 

10. 

An  Evening  Sunset. 

II. 

The  Microscope. 

12. 

A  Wedding. 

13- 

A  Country  Fair. 

14. 

A  Game  of  Cricket. 

15- 

A  Steamship. 

16. 

A  Canary-Bird. 

EXPOSITION.  295 

LESSON    XLVIII. 

EXPOSITION. 

Exposition  consists  in  setting  forth  the  attributes  of  any  subject, 
in  presenting  doctrines,  principles,  or  views,  for  the  instruction  of 
others.  The  subjects  of  which  it  treats  may  be  divided  into,  — 
Scientific  and  Moral.  Scientific  Exposition  expounds  truth  with- 
out reference  to  right  or  wrong ;  Moral  Exposition  deals  with 
human  actions  and  duties. 

The  chief  kinds  of  Exposition  may  be  classed  under  ( i )  Essays, 
(2)  Treatises. 

An  Essay  is  a  modest  attempt  to  state  the  author's  views  on  a 
subject.  It  does  not  particularly  aim  at  being  formal  or  complete, 
but  rather  at  giving  the  writer's  general  thoughts  in  an  easy,  but 
intelligent  and  interesting  manner. 

Editorials,  Reviews,  Criticisms,  are  species  of  the  Essay. 

An  Editorial  is  a  short  essay  on  any  subject.  It  contains  the 
opinion  of  the  editor  of  a  newspaper  on  some  current  topic. 

Reviews  resemble  Editorials,  but  they  deal  with  a  subject  at 
much  greater  length.  They  generally  contain  a  pretty  exhaustive 
examination  of  the  opinions  or  statements  of  the  articles  considered. 

Criticisms  differ  from  Reviews  in  being  written  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  how  for  a  work  follows  the  principles  on  which  it 
presumes  to  be  constructed.  They  exhibit  alike  defects  and  ex- 
cellences. 

The  Thoughts.  —  In  Narration  and  Description  the  materials 
are  obtained  chiefly  through  the  five  senses,  but  in  Exposition 
they  are  the  product  of  the  reasoning  faculty.  Hence,  in  a  com- 
IXDsition  of  this  class,  the  chief  difficulty  with  beginners  is  to  find 
the  thoughts.  In  seeking  for  and  arranging  them,  the  means 
indicated  in  the  Lesson  on  Themes  are  to  be  pursued. 

The  Parts.  —  In  the  Introduction  is  placed  the  formal  state 
ment  of  the  principles  or  views  to  be  unfolded ;  the  Discussion, 


296  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

or  body  of  the  composition,  contains  the  methodical  develop- 
ment of  the  subject ;  and  the  Conclusion,  a  summary  of  the 
whole. 

Method.  —  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  young  persons,  such 
as  those  who  study  these  pages,  are  attempting  to  master  all  the 
principles  upon  which  the  various  sciences  are  expounded ;  but 
that  they  may  be  moving  on  right  lines  so  far  as  they  go,  a  few 
points  in  the  method  of  exposition  are  here  mentioned. 

1.  In  expounding  a  subject  it  is  necessary  to  divide  it  into 
parts.     The  divisions  must  be  — 

a.  Distinct,  so  that  they  do  not  overlap  each  other. 

b.  Exhaustive,  so  that  they  embrace  the  whole  subject.  In  the 
Essay  this  is  not  essential. 

2.  After  the  plan  of  discussion  has  been  sketched,  the  subject 
must  be  expounded  part  by  part. 

3.  If  it  is  necessary  to  subdivide  any  part,  the  rules  above 
must  be  observed. 

4.  The  principle,  or  leading  thought,  of  each  part  or  subordi- 
nate part  must  be  clearly  stated. 

5.  In  expounding  the  general  principles  under  each  head  the 
following  devices  assist :  — 

a.  Repeating  them  in  other  words,  in  other  forms,  or  under 
other  figures  of  speech. 

b.  Obverse  iteration,  that  is,  expressing  the  same  idea  from  the 
opposite  point  of  view:  as,  "The  day  is  bright";  "The  day  is 
not  gloomy." 

c.  The  various  means  of  illustration  mentioned  on  page  236. 

d.  Drawing  inferences  to  show  the  effect  of  the  principles  when 
carried  to  their  logical  conclusions. 

e.  Applying  the  views  expounded  to  particular  cases  so  as  to 
illustrate  their  practical  effect. 

Style.  —  As  clearness  is  the  chief  object  to  be  attained,  the 
language  should  be  plain  and  the  style  neat  and  concise.  Each 
point  should,  when  practicable,  be  illustrated  by  examples,  and 
strengthened  by  quotations. 


EXPOSITION.  297 

Theme :  Anger. 

Framework. 

I.   Introduction  :   The  mind  is  subject  to  various  ebullitions 
of  feeling. 

II.   Discussion  :  — 

1.  What  Anger  is. 

a.  A  feeling  of  displeasure  against  wrong. 

b.  A  feeling  that  desires  vengeance  on  its  object. 

c.  In  its  intensity  it  resembles  madness. 

2.  What  Anger  does. 

a.  It  carries  the  mind  beyond  the  control  of  reason. 

b.  It  leads  a  person    to  say  and  do  unreasonable 

things.     Illustrations. 

c.  It  may  cause  a  man  to  im'ure  his  own  cause,  or 

even  himself.     Examples. 

III.    Conclusion  :  As  all  feelings  grow  if  uncurbed,  we  should 
keep  our  temper  under  the  control  of  reason. 

EXERCISE  XCIV. 

Exposition. 

Direction.  —  Construct  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  the  foUe'.ving 
topics;   write  out  each  theme  in  full. 

1.  Hope.  8.  Idleness. 

2.  Anger.  9.  Humility. 

3.  Candor.  10.  Contemplation. 

4.  Taste.  II.  Passion  for  Dress. 

5.  Modesty.  12.  Evils  of  War. 

6.  Freedom.  13.  Blessings  of  Liberty. 

7.  Courage.  14.  Decision  of  Character. 

15.   Advantages  of  Railroads. 


2gS  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    XLIX. 

ARGUMENTATION. 

Argumentativb  composition  is  that  in  which  the  aim  is  to 
modify  or  induce  belief  by  means  of  argument.  The  body  of  a 
composition  of  this  class  consists  of  two  parts,  —  the  Proposition, 
or  that  which  is  to  be  proved,  and  the  Arguments,  or  Proof. 

Two  Methods. — Two  methods  may  be  employed  in  Argu- 
mentative Composition,  —  the  Deductive  and  the  Inductive.  In 
the  first,  the  line  of  thought  proceeds  from  the  subject  to  the 
predicate  of  the  proposition  to  be  proved ;  and  in  the  second, 
from  the  predicate  to  the  subject. 

Parts.  — When  the  proposition  is  stated  at  the  outset,  it  should 
be  stated  in  the  clearest  and  briefest  manner  possible.  After  the 
Introduction  follow  the  Arguments.  They  should  be  so  arranged 
that  the  weakest  come  in  the  middle  and  the  strongest  last.  The 
connection  between  the  arguments  and  the  conclusion  must  be 
made  clear  in  each  case.  The  Conclusion  consists  of  a  re-state- 
ment of  the  proposition  as  enforced  by  the  combined  strength  of 
all  the  arguments. 

Style.  —  Clearness  and  force  are  here  the  chief  requisites ; 
little  or  no  ornament  is  required  ;  the  style  should  be  neat,  but 
sufficiently  diffuse  to  make  the  points  easily  seen.  Every  argu- 
ment should  have  illustrations,  examples,  quotations,  or  instances, 
to  make  its  force  and  meaning  perfectly  clear. 

Theme  :   To  he  Good  is  to  be  Happy. 

Framework. 

I.    Introduction  :  Explain  clearly  goodness  and  happiness. 

II.    Discussion:  Goodness  leads  to  happiness  because  — 

I.    It  gives  a  good  conscience,  one  of  the  conditions  of 
happiness.     Example, 


ARGUMENTATION.  299 

2.  It  gives  happiness  under  all  conditions. 

3.  Its  power  does  not  grow  old. 

4.  It  wins  the  approbation  of  our  fellows. 

5.  It  meets  with  the  approval  of  Heaven. 

III.   Conclusion  :  We  should  make  goodness  our  highest  aim. 

EXERCISE  XCV. 

Argumentation. 

Direction.  —  Construct  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  the  following 
topics;  write  out  the  theme  in  full. 

1.  Whatever  is,  is  Right. 

2.  Honesty  is  the  Best  Policy. 

3.  Should  Judges  be  elected? 

4.  Our  Antagonist  is  our  Helper. 

5.  Knowledge  is  Power. 

6.  Labor  is  a  Blessing. 

7.  Life  is  a  School. 

8.  Wisdom  leads  to  Happiness. 

9.  Contrivance  proves  Design. 

10.  Manhood  Suffrage  is  Desirable. 

11.  It  is  Expedient  to  wear  Mourning  Apparel. 

12.  Compulsory  Education  is  a  Benefit  to  the  State. 

13.  Is  Execution  by  Electricity  advisable? 

14.  Self-praise  is  no  Commendation. 

15.  Example  is  more  Powerful  than  Precept. 

16.  We  should  resist  the  Beginnings  of  Evil. 

17.  Mathematics  is  a  useful  Study. 

18.  Education  leads  to  Virtue. 

19.  Expectation  excels  Realization. 

20.  Party  Covernment  is  injurious  to  the  State. 

2 1 .  Lady  Teachers  should  receive  the  same  Wages  as  Gentlemen. 

22.  One  should  not  be  above  One's  Business. 

23.  Extremes  should  be  avoided. 


300  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    L. 

PERSUASION. 

Persuasion,  or  Oratory,  is  that  kind  of  composition  whose 
object  is  to  move  the  will  by  presenting  motives  for  action. 

The  Ends  of  Oratory.  —  In  Exposition  and  Argumentation 
we  appeal  entirely  to  man's  intellectual  nature  ;  we  seek  to  inform 
his  understanding,  and  then  allow  him  to  act  as  he  pleases.  Oratory 
goes  further  :  it  would  not  only  convince  the  judgment,  but  change 
the  will  and  rouse  to  action.  It  presupposes  an  opposition  between 
the  speaker  and  his  audience,  and  then  sets  to  work  to  remove 
this  opposition,  to  induce  the  latter  to  accept  the  views  of  the 
former  and  to  act  upon  them. 

Classification.  —  The  usual  forms  of  persuasion  are,  —  Ora- 
tions, Addresses,  Lectures,  Sermons. 

1.  OR.A.TIONS  are  ornate  formal  compositions,  elaborately  pre- 
pared for  special  occasions.  Their  object  is  not  to  persuade,  but 
to  pronounce  a  panegyric  on  some  person  or  event.  They  are 
elevated,  forcible,  brilliant,  and  aim  at  pleasing  the  imagination 
and  stirring  the  passions. 

2.  Addresses  are  less  formal  than  orations.  They  may  be  of 
almost  any  length  and  on  almost  any  subject.  They  need  not 
be  labored  examinations  of  any  subject,  but  must  be  clear,  and 
adapted  to  the  character  and  circumstances  of  the  persons  ad- 
dressed. 

3.  Speeches  are  still  less  formal  than  addresses.  They  are 
almost  unlimited  in  variety ;  they  may  be  on  the  gravest  ques- 
tions of  public  pohcy  or  on  the  commonest  affairs  in  social  life.  In 
the  higher  sense  they  consist  of  an  analytical  investigation  of  some 
great  political,  social,  or  economic  question ;  while  in  the  humbler 
view  they  may  be  made  on  the  ordinary  concerns  of  everyday 
life.     Speeches  should  be  ready,  fluent,  and  pleasing.    The  object 


PERSUASION.  301 

is  by  explanation,  argument,  or  illustration  to  lead  the  hearer  to 
accept  the  views  of  the  speaker. 

4.  A  Lecture  is  a  learned  discussion  of  some  subject  of  im- 
portance or  interest.  The  lecturer  is  expected  to  have  a  special 
acquaintance  with  his  subject,  and  to  be  able  to  explain  it  in  a 
clear  and  methodical  manner,  so  that  his  hearers  may  be  able  to 
comprehend  the  meaning. 

5.  Sermons  are  carefully  prepared  expositions  of  religious  truths. 
They  are  generally  based  on  texts  of  Scripture,  and,  besides  their 
expository  qualities,  usually  contain  appeals  to  the  listener  to 
accept  the  views  enunciated  or  to  act  on  the  admonitions  given. 

Means  of  Persuasion.  — Among  the  means  employed  to  move 
the  will  and  rouse  to  action  are  :  — 

a.  To  lay  before  the  mind  a  full  and  clear  description  of  the 
object,  circumstances,  or  scene.     See  pages  237  and  245. 

b.  To  narrate  in  a  vivid  manner  the  incident  or  story  ^lat  is 
intended  to  induce  the  will  to  act.  Such  an  explanation  as  enables 
one  clearly  to  understand  a  case  or  situation  may  move  him  to 
sympathy. 

These  may  be  called  the  pictorial  methods  of  persuasion. 

c.  To  present  cogent  reasons  to  convince  the  judgment  and 
then  to  apply  them  to  prove  to  the  listener  his  advantage,  or  to 
move  him  by  the  higher  motives  of  duty.  Such  arguments  must 
be  simple  and  direct.  Every  point  must  be  fully  illustrated.  See 
page  236. 

d.  To  state  objections  fairly  and  then  answer  them  fully  and 
convincingly.     Omission  or  weakness  here  is  fatal. 

e.  To  appeal  directly  to  the  feelings  by  dwelling  on  the  points 
likely  to  arouse  sympathy,  or  by  infusing  the  hearer  with  the 
speaker's  own  enthusiasm. 

Style.  —  In  Oratory,  the  chief  qualities  of  style  required  are 
clearness  and  force,  but  the  other  qualities  are  scarcely  less  requi- 
site. Here  all  the  beauties  of  prose  composition  are  in  place,  and 
nothing  low  or  trivial  should  be  admitted.  The  language  should 
always  be  elevated  and   refined.     Illustrations  should  be  freely 


302  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

introduced,  and  when  possible  the  main  idea  should  be  clothed 
in  original  imagery. 

In  oratory  there  is  more  than  language ;  the  speaker  is  present 
with  his  personal  influence  to  weaken  or  strengthen  the  effect  of 
his  words.  The  movements  of  the  body,  the  expression  of  the 
countenance,  the  flash  of  the  eye,  the  whole  bearing,  may  be  made 
to  teU  in  favor  of  the  speaker's  views.  To  rouse  his  audience,  he 
must  himself  be  deeply  impressed  with  his  subject.  He  need  not 
show  all  his  feelings ;  indeed,  if  they  seem  to  overcome  him  and 
break  out  against  his  will,  they  are  all  the  more  likely  to  touch  the 
listeners. 

The  speaker  must  know  his  audieuce  and  must  adapt  his  sub- 
ject, style,  and  language  to  their  capacity.  With  uneducated 
people,  he  must  be  plain,  pathetic,  and  humorous  ;  with  a  cultured 
assembly,  he  should  appeal  more  to  the  judgment  and  sympathy, 
and  should  employ  only  such  language  as  is  grateful  to  their  ear. 

Theme  I    JVork  while  you  may. 

Framework. 

I.  Introduction  :  We  are  all  disposed  to  procrastinate.     Illus- 
trate. 

11.  Discussion  :  We  should  seize  the  present  because  — 

1.  Life  is  short  and  uncertain.     Illustrate. 

2.  Opportunities  do  not  stay.     Amplify  by  quotations  and 

examples. 

3.  If  opportunities  do  present  themselves  in  the  future,  we 

may  not  be  in  a  position  to  embrace  them.    Illustrate. 
Support  by  quotations  and  incidents. 

III.   Conclusion  :  A  summing  up  and  exhortation. 


PERSUASION.  303 

EXERCISE  XCVI. 

Persuasion. 

Direction.  —  Construct  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  the  following 
topics;    write  out  each  theme  in  full. 

1.  Silent  Influence. 

2.  The  Habit  of  Reading. 

3.  The  Value  of  Character. 

4.  The  Power  of  Kindness. 

5.  The  Power  of  Habit. 

6.  No  Place  like  Home. 

7.  The  Vanity  of  Riches. 

8.  Do  not  despise  Poverty. 

9.  Live  within  your  Means. 

10.  The  Dress  is  not  the  Man. 

11.  Influence  of  Good  Manners. 

12.  The  Baseness  of  Ingratitude. 

13.  Poverty  develops  the  Character  better  than  Riches 

14.  He  is  Rich  who  desires  Nothing. 

15.  A  Good  Conscience  is  better  than  Wealth. 

16.  We  should  have  an  Object  in  Life. 

17.  No  Pains,  no  Gains. 

18.  Forgiveness  is  the  Noblest  Revenge. 

19.  Keep  your  Honor  Bright. 

20.  Youth  is  the  Time  for  Preparation. 

21.  We  should  be  Courteous. 

22.  Young  People  should  learn  to  be  Punctual. 

23.  We  must  obey  the  Laws  of  our  Country. 

24.  We  should  value  the  good  Opinion  of  Others, 
25.'  Youth  should  reverence  Age. 

26.  We  should  cultivate  Self-Reliance. 

27.  We  must  practise  Honesty. 


304  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

LESSON    LI. 

POETRY. 

Poetry  differs  from  prose  in  form,  diction,  and  object.  Its 
lorm  is  Verse  —  that  is,  composition  arranged  in  lines  of  a  fixed 
number  of  regularly  recurring  accented  and  unaccented  syllables ; 
its  diction,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  usually  more  "  archaic, 
picturesque,  and  euphonious  "  than  that  of  prose  ;  while  its  object 
is  to  please  rather  than  to  instruct.  Of  these,  the  first  only  is 
essential.  The  diction  of  poetry  and  that  of  prose  shade  off  in- 
sensibly into  each  other  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  draw  any  dis- 
tinct line  of  separation ;  and  though  the  primary  object  of  poetry 
may  be  to  give  pleasure,  yet  much  that  bears  the  name  and 
assumes  the  form  does  not  hesitate  to  attempt  other  ends. 

Materials  of  Poetry. 

Since  poetry  has  the  definite  object  of  giving  pleasure,  chiefly 
by  gratifying  our  fine-art  emotions,  it  is  restricted  to  such  sub- 
jects and  to  such  a  manner  of  handling  as  will  secure  that  end. 

The  chief  sources  from  which  the  poet  draws  his  materials,  that 
is,  his  subjects  and  his  illustrations,  are  :  — 

I.  External  Nature.  —  Its  majesty  —  mountain  and  forest, 
vaulted  sky  and  pealing  thunder  ;  its  movements  —  the  flowing  river 
and  the  purling  brook,  the  heaving  ocean  and  the  foaming  cata- 
ract, the  bounding  stag  and  the  pursuing  hound  ;  its  sounds  —  the 
song  of  the  bird,  the  moaning  of  the  wind,  the  raging  of  the  tem- 
pest, the  roarmg  of  the  waterfall ;  its  colors  —  the  plumage  of  the 
bird,  the  tints  of  the  rose,  the  brown  heath,  the  green  sward,  the 
flush  of  health,  the  purpling  east  and  the  glowing  west,  the  silver 
moon  and  the  golden  stars,  —  all  these,  with  ten  thousand  other 
beauties,  detected  by  the  poet's  eye  and  ear,  supply  material  for 
his  song. 


POETRY.  305 

2.  Humanity. — The  life  of  man  abounds  in  materials  for 
poetry.  Man's  physical  strength  and  dazzling  deeds  ;  his  intel- 
lectual powers  and  the  wonders  they  have  achieved  ;  his  acts  of 
courage,  of  kindness,  and  of  self-sacrifice ;  but,  especially,  his 
emotional  nature,  his  displays  of  tenderness,  of  sympathy,  of 
affection,  or  of  love  ;  his  moral  and  religious  sentiments,  —  all 
these  may  be  the  theme  of  poetry. 

3.  Imagination.  —  Not  the  real  world  alone,  but  the  ideal,  the 
world  created  and  peopled  by  the  imagination,  is  available  for  the 
purposes  of  poetry.  Plot,  incident,  character,  all  that  springs  from 
the  fertile  fancy  of  the  poet,  may  be  employed  by  him  to  charm 
and  delight  the  mind,  even  to  inspire  hope  and  to  influence  con- 
duct by  lofty  ideals. 

While  the  poet  lays  these  vast  fields  under  contribution,  he 
must  select  in  each  with  due  regard  to  the  demands  of  our  ses- 
thetic  nature.  Whatever  is  disgusting,  off'ensive,  or  even  indiffer- 
ent, must  be  rejected. 

In  the  selection  and  treatment  of  subjects,  the  following  points 
may  be  observed  :  — 

1.  Poetry  chooses  for  its  themes  and  illustrations  the  concrete 
rather  than  the  abstract,  and  the  particular  ra,ther  than  the  general. 

2.  Poetry  collects  together  a  greater  number  of  beauties  and 
excellences,  more  lively  incidents,  more  sparkling  wit,  more 
charming  figures  of  speech,  than  are  compressed  within  the  same 
limits  in  prose.  Prose  is  a  meadow  with  here  and  there  a  daisy 
or  a  primrose  ;  poetry  is  a  flower  garden  clustering  with  lovely 
forms  and  colors,  and  fragrant  with  sweet  odors. 

3.  Continuing  this  process  of  combination,  poetry  indulges 
more  or  less  in  idealizing  its  object.  Its  scenes  are  more  beau- 
tiful than  the  actual ;  its  heroes  are  more  valiant  and  noble,  its 
characters  more  virtuous  and  lofty  than  those  met  with  in  life ; 
while  its  justice  gratifies  our  feelings  rather  than  satisfies  our  sense 
of  right. 

4.  Poetry  does  not  always  reject  painful  subjects.  They  may 
become  themes  of  poetry  when  the  distressing  effects  they  produce 


306  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

are  fully  redeemed  by  the  beauty  of  the  language  or  imagery,  by 
vivid  descriptions  of  the  nobility  of  fortitude  under  suffering,  or 
by  the  pleasurable  emotions  of  the  sympathy  they  arouse. 

5.  In  its  treatment  of  subjects,  poetry  studies  to  embody  all 
the  elegances  and  all  the  attractions  of  style.  In  the  story,  in 
the  incidents,  in  the  scenes,  in  the  characters,  and  in  the  expres- 
sion of  emotion,  it  pays  a  stricter  attention  to  the  demands  of 
Harmony  than  does  prose  in  its  loftiest  strain. 

Divisions  of  Poetry. 

Poetry  is  usually  classified  into  Epic,  Dramatic,  Lyric,  and 
Didactic. 

The  first  two  of  these  divisions  are  the  same  in  matter,  —  the 
essential  element  of  each  is  a  story,  —  but  they  differ  in  the  man- 
ner of  presenting  their  subject.  In  the  Drama,  the  author  never 
appears  ;  his  characters  speak  and  act  for  themselves.  In  the 
Epic  the  writer  is  always  present,  telling  us  of  the  actions  and 
speeches  of  others. 

I.  Epic,  or  Narrative,  Poetry  must  contain  a  story.  It  is 
subdivided  into  — 

a.  The  Great  Epic.     This  must  have  — 

(a)  A  great  and  noble  subject. 

(b)  Grave  and  dignified  treatment. 

(^)    A  hero  and  other  important  actors. 
{d)    A  complete  and  complicated  plot  or  story. 
(<f)    The    events    chiefly   or   wholly   under   superhuman 
control. 
Examples.  —  Milton's  Paradise  Lost;  Pollock's  Course 
of  Time  ;  Beowulf. 

b.  The   Metrical   Romance.     As   compared   with   the   Great 

Epic,  (i)  the  subject  is  less  lofty  and  important;  (2)  the 
treatment  is  more  easy  and  familiar;  (3)  the  control  of 
events  is  partially  or  wholly  human ;  (4)  more  promi- 
nence is  given  to  Love ;  (5)  the  metre  is  lighter. 


POETRY.  307 

Examples.  —  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene  ;  Scott's  Lady  of 
the  Lake  ;  Moore's  Loves  of  the  Angels. 

c.  The  Tale  is  still  less  formal  than  the  Romance,  and  its  treat- 

ment admits  of  greater  ease  and  variety. 

Examples.  —  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales ;  Byron's  Cor- 
sair; Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden  ;  Longfellow's  Evangeline. 

It  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a  metrical  history ;  as 
Dryden's  Anmis  Mirabilis. 

d.  The  Ballad  contains  a  simple  and  rapid  relation  of  some 

incident  of  war,  love,  or  daily  life. 

Examples.  —  Chevy  Chase  ;  Robin  Hood ;  John  Gilpin  ; 
Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 

e.  The  Mixed  Epic  is  a  poem  that  contains  a  story  with  which 

is  intermingled  more  or  less  of  reflection  and  description. 
Examples.  —  Byron's   Childe  Harold.     Sometimes  the 
story  is  not  continuous,  as  in  Wordsworth's  Excursion. 

f.  Pastorals,  Idylls,  etc.     These  poems,  which  are  of  a  mixed 

character,  reflective,  descriptive,  and  emotional,  may  be 
classed  as  Epic,  since  they  contain  a  story  more  or  less 
continuous. 

ExafHples.  —  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King;    Keats's 

Endymion ;    and  Thomson's  Seasons. 

2.   The  Drama  embraces  all  that  part  of  poetry  which,  though 

narrative  in  its  matter,  yet  does  not  present  its  subject  in  the  form 

of  a  relation,  but  allows  its  characters  to  appear  and  speak  and 

act  for  themselves.     It  is  divided  into  — 

a.   Tragedy.    This  deals  with  solemn,  serious,  and  grave  topics  ; 
and  is  intended  to  move    the   deepest  feelings  of  pity, 
admiration,  and  awe. 
There  must  be  — 

{a)  A  plot  more  or  less  complicated  and  important. 

(d)   A  leading  character,  or  characters,  and  several  less  in 

importance. 
(c)    Unity  of  subject  and  of  action. 

Examples.  —  Hamlet;  Macbeth;  Romeo  and  Juliet. 


308  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

b.  Comedy  is  designed  to  provoke  mirdi,  or,  at  least,  pleasurable 
emotion,  and  consequendy  chooses  its  subjects  from  the 
follies,  accidents,  or  humors  of  life.  As  in  the  tragedy 
there  must  be  a  plot,  and  much  of  the  interest  often  arises 
from  the  skill  with  which  it  is  woven  and  developed,  as 
well  as  from  the  ridiculous  situations  in  which  the  char- 
acters are  placed. 

The  Comedy  is  divided  into  the  Comedy  proper,  the 
Farce,  the  Opera,  the  Melodrama,  and  the  Mask. 

A  Farce  is  a  short  comedy,  and  consists  of  extravagant 
acts  and  ridiculous  situations. 

An  Opera  is  a  kind  of  comedy  in  which  the  actors  sing 
their  parts. 

A  Melodrama  is  partly  spoken  and  partly  sung. 
A  Mask  is  a  romantic  scene  with  supernatural  charac- 
ters. 
3.   Lyric  Poetry.  —  In  Epic  and  in  Dramatic  poetry  the  poet 
voices  the  acts,  words,  and  thoughts  of  others ;    in  Lyric  poetry 
he  expresses  his  own  thoughts  and  feelings. 
Lyric  poetry  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Odes.      These  express  a  wide  range  of  feeling,  reaching 

from   the  gay  and  thoughtful  to   the   noblest  and  most 
sublime. 

Examples.  —  Keats's   Ode  to  a  Nightingale ;  CoUins's 
Ode  on  the  Passions  ;  Milton's  Hymn  on  the  Nativity. 

b.  Songs.     These  embrace  a  vast  variety  of  subjects,  sacred 

and  secular. 

(«)   Sacred    songs    comprise    psalms,    hymns,   anthems, 

choruses,  etc. 
(^)   Secular  songs  may  be  patriotic,  comic,  sentimental, 

moral,  of  love,  of  war,  etc. 

c.  The  Elegy  contains  reflections  on  some  mournful  subject, 

personal  or  general. 

Examples.  —  Milton's  Lycidas  ;  Gray's  Elegy  written  in 
a  Country  Churehyard. 


POETRY.  309 

d.  The  Sonnet  is  a  poem  of  fourteen  lines.     It  may  deal  with 

any  subject,  and  is  always  of  the  same  metre,  iambic  pen- 
tameter. Shakespeare,  Milton,  and  Wordsworth  are  the 
great  names  in  this  species  of  poetry. 

e.  The  Simple  Lyric.     Many  minor  Lyric  poems  cannot  be 

said  to  possess  the  characteristics  of  any  of  these  classes. 
They  are  such  as  Wordsworth's  Cuckoo ;  Rosetti's  Cloud 
Confines  ;  ^lrs.'i^vovfmng's  A  Dead  Rose  ;  O.  W.  Holmes's 
ContentmetiL 
4.    Didactic    Poetry   attempts   to   combine    instruction   with 
pleasure.     As  its  object  is  partially  the  same  as  that  of  Persua- 
sion, it  employs  most  of  the  means  mentioned  under  that  head. 
Examples.  —  Vest's  Aforal  Essays ;  Cowper's  Task. 
Nearly  allied  to  Didactic  Poetry  is  Satiric  Poetry,  but  it  departs 
still,  further  from  the  true  purpose  of  giving  pleasure.     Indeed, 
it  simply  assumes  the  form  of  poetry  to  increase  its  venom.     As 
its  object  is  similar  to  that  of  prose  compositions  of  the  satiric 
class,  it  uses  the  methods  named  on  pages  253,  254. 

Examples.  —  Dryden's    Absalom    and    Ahitophel ;    Johnson's 
London ;   Lowell's  Bigloia  Papers. 

EXERCISE   XCVII. 

Poetry. 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 

tics 

8 

9 


How  does  poetry  differ  from  prose  ? 
What  do  you  understand  by  the  materials  of  poetry? 
Where  does  poetry  select  its  materials  ? 
How  is  the  choice  of  the  subjects  of  poetry  limited? 
What  methods  of  treatment  are  peculiar  to  poetry  ? 
Name  the  leading  divisions  of  poetry. 

Name  the  classes  of  epic  poetry,  and  give  the  characteris- 
of  each. 
Name  an  example  of  each  class  of  epic  poetry. 
Give  a  minute  account  of  the  structure  of  any  epic  poem 


you  have  read. 


3IO  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

10.  Classify  all  the  epic  poems  you  have  read. 

11.  How  does  dramatic  poetry  differ  from  epic? 

12.  State  the  prominent  features  of  each  kind  of  dramatic 
poetry. 

13.  Point  out  clearly  the  distinction  between  the  tragedy  and 
the  comedy. 

14.  Classify  all  the  dramas  you  have  read,  with  reasons. 

15.  How  does  lyric  poetry  differ  from  dramatic  and  epic? 

16.  Describe  each  class  of  lyric  poetry. 

I  7.  Make  a  line  of  the  classes  of  lyric  poetry,  and  write  down 
under  its  proper  class  the  name  of  each  of  the  lyric  poems  you 
can  recollect  reading. 

18.  Describe  didactic  poetry. 

19.  What  relation  does  satiric  poetry  bear  to  what  you  consider 
true  poetry? 

20.  What  is  poetry? 

21.  Describe  the  sonnet. 

22.  What  are  the  leading  characteristics  of  poetic  diction? 

23.  How  does  the  method  of  poetic  description  differ  from 
that  of  prose  ? 

24.  Why  does  poetry  choose  the  concrete  and  the  particular? 

25.  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  "the  language  of  poetry  is 
archaic"?     Illustrate. 

26.  Illustrate  what  is  meant  by  the  music  of  poetry. 

27.  How  is  the  use  of  figurative  language  in  poetry  limited? 

28.  How  do  Songs  differ  from  other  lyric  poetry? 

29.  Describe  an  Ode. 

30.  What  arguments  in  favor  of  the  existence  of  didactic  poetry  ? 


VERSIFICATION.  3 II 

LESSON    LII. 

VERSIFICATION. 

Versification  is  that  part  of  Rhetoric  which  treats  of  verse- 
m. iking.  Its  leading  features  may  be  studied  under  (i)  Metre, 
(2)  Rhyme,  (3)  Stanza. 

Metre. 

Rhythm.  —  All  well-written  composition  has  a  smooth  and 
graceful  flow  known  by  the  name  of  rhythm.  Rhythm  varies  in 
prose  from  the  quiet  level,  or  harsh  abruptness,  in  which  the 
music  of  motion  is  scarcely  perceptible,  to  a  measured  flow 
closely  approaching  the  regularity  of  verse. 

This  rhythm  arises  from  such  a  choice  and  arrangement  of  syl- 
lables as  cause  the  voice  to  fall  at  intervals  that  tend  to  produce 
a  pleasing  and  effective  cadence.  When  these  cadences  occur  at 
regular  distances,  we  have  metre  ;  in  fact,  metre  is  rhythm  reduced 
to  regularity. 

Accent,  —  From  this  it  appears  that  metre  is  based  on  accent, 
which  is  a  stress  of  the  voice  laid  on  a  certain  syllable  or  syllables 
of  a  word  or  of  a  collection  of  words.  When  it  falls  on  one  of  the 
syllables  of  a  word  of  two  or  more  syllables  it  is  called  word 
accent,  and  when  on  a  monosyllable  it  is  called  metrical  accent. 

Example :  — 

"  Avenger  of  his  kinsman's  death." 

Here  the  accent  on  avenger  and  on  kinsman's  are  of  the  former 
kmd,  while  the  accent  on  ^^and  on  death  are  of  the  latter.  They 
have  the  same  value  in  scansion. 

Feet.  —  The  regular  recurrence  of  the  accent  naturally  divides 
the  line  into  parts.  These  parts  are  called  feet.  A  foot,  there- 
fore, consists  of  a  combination  of  two  or  more  syllables,  one  of 
which  is  accented. 


312  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

The  syllables  comprised  in  a  foot  do  not  necessarily  form  a 
single  word,  but  may  be  any  parts.     Thus  :  — 

"  One  cell  |  there  is  |  concealed  |  from  vuljgar  eye, 
The  cave  |  of  povjerty  |  and  pojetry." 
Kinds  of  Feet.  —  In  prose  two  accented  syllables  may  follow 
in  succession  ;  as,  "  divine  providence."  In  poetry  one  or  two 
unaccented  syllables  must  intervene  between  the  accents  ;  except 
in  the  case  of  a  substituted  foot,  or  of  pauses  taking  the  place  of 
the  unaccented  syllable  or  syllables  ;  as,  — 

"  A  little  angel  unawares." 
"  Her  all  had  a  meaning,  her  movements  a  grace." 

This  gives  rise  to  two  kinds  of  basal  feet.  But,  as  the  unac- 
cented syllable  or  syllables  may  come  on  either  side  of  the 
accented  one,  four  varieties  of  feet  are  produced.  Thus,  if  " 
denotes  an  accented  syllable,  and  ^  denotes  an  unaccented  one, 
we  have  "^  "  or  "^  ^  ' ;  or  if  the  accented  syllable  comes 
first,  we  get    '   ^   or    '   ^    ^,  named  as  follows:  — 

\^     " 
Iambus,  ^     '  ;  as,  beheld. 

Anapaest,  "^  ^     ' ;  as,  intermingled. 

Trochee,     '  "^  ;  as,  singing. 

Dactyl,     '  ^  ^  ;  as,  mournfully. 

A  Verse,  or  line  of  poetry,  is  a  combination  of  feet. 
Kinds  of  Verse.  —  Metre  is  doubly  named  :  first,  from  the  kind 
of  foot ;  secondly,  from  the  number  of  feet  in  the  line.     Thus  :  — 

A  line  of  one  iambic  foot  is  called  iambic  monometer. 

iambic  dimeter, 
iambic  trimeter, 
iambic  tetrameter, 
iambic  pentameter, 
iambic  hexameter, 
iambic  heptameter. 
The  other  three  kinds  are  similarly  named. 


"           two       " 

feet        ' 

"          three    " 

"          four      " 

t(                                     ^yg                        (C 

"          six        " 

"          seven  " 

VERSIFICATION.  313 

An  iambic  pentameter  is  often  called  heroic  measure,  because 
it  is  used  in  heroic  or  epic  poems. 

An  iambic  hexameter  is  sometimes  called  an  Alexandrine,  be- 
cause in  the  Middle  Ages  poems  about  Alexander  the  Great  were 
written  in  this  measure. 

Other  Feet.  —  Other  combinations  of  accented  and  unac- 
cented syllables  may  be  made,  but  they  are  unnecessary.     One  is 

named  Amphibrach  ;  as,  "  receiving." 

Exa  tuples :  — 

Iambic  Measure. 

Iambic  monometer  :  — 

"  Farewell, 
Sweet  dell." 
Iambic  dimeter  :  — 

"  I  feel  1  like  one 
Who  treads  |  alone." 
Iambic  trimeter  :  — 

"The  vil|lage  smithjy  stands." 
Iambic  tetrameter :  — 

"Sow  peace,  ]  and  reap  |  its  har|vest  bright." 
Iambic  pentameter  :  — 

"Know  well  |  thyself;  |  presume  |  not  God  |  to  scan." 
Iambic  hexameter :  — 

"  The  frost  |  nipped  sharp  |  without,  ]  the  canlker  preyed  | 
within." 
Iambic  heptameter :  — 

"Yon   is'land  strength  |  is  guard;ed  well,  |  say,  broth|ers, 
will  I  you  in?  " 


314  composition  and  rhetoric. 

Trochaic  Measure. 
Trochaic  monometer  :  — 

"  Sweetest." 
Trochaic  dimeter  :  — 

"  Rich  the  |  treasure, 
Sweet  the  |  pleasure." 
Trochaic  trimeter  :  — 

"Go  where  |  glory  [  waits  thee." 
Trochaic  tetrameter  :  — 

"  In  her  |  ear  he  |  whispers  ]  gently." 
Trochaic  octometer  :  — 

"  And    the  |  silken,  ]  sad,  unjcertain  |  rustling  |  of  each 

purple  I  curtain." 


Anap^stic  Measure. 


Anapaestic  dimeter  :  — - 

"There  is  smoke  |  in  the  flame." 
Anapaestic  trimeter  :  — 

"Of  the  beaultiful  Anajabel  Lee." 
Anapaestic  tetrameter  :  — 

"  Have  waklened  thv  fondlest  thy  lovelliest  thrill." 


Dactylic  Measure. 
Dactylic  monometer  :  — 

"Tenderly." 
Dactylic  dimeter  :  — 

"One  more  unj fortunate." 


VERSIFICATION.  315 

Dactylic  tetrameter :  — 

"Joy  of  the  |  desolate  |  light  of  the  |  straying." 
Dactylic  hexameter :  — 

"  This  is  the  |  forest  pri{meval  the  |  murmuring  |  pines  and 
the  I  hemlocks." 

Scanning  is  dividing  a  line  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed.    Thus:  — 

"Then  flashed  |  the  livjing  light|ning  from  |  her  eyes." 

The  accent  of  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  is  fixed  by  the 
dictionary ;  the  accent  of  monosyllables  varies  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  line.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  determine 
the  measure  without  examining  a  number  of  the  lines  to  find  out 
what  is  the  prevailing  foot.  In  trying  to  scan  a  piece,  first  mark 
the  accents  that  are  known  ;  that  is,  the  accents  of  the  words  of 
more  than  one  syllable  ;  then  arrange  the  accents  of  the  mono- 
syllables to  suit  these. 

Substituted  Feet.  —  One  foot  is  frequendy  substituted  for 
another  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  or  to  give  variety  or  richness 
to  the  music  of  the  line.     Thus  :  — 

A  trochee  for  an  iambus  ;  as,  — 

"  .\  golden  clasp,  clasping  a  shred  of  gold." 
An  anapaest  for  an  iambus  ;  as,  — 

"  I  stood  on  the  bridge  at  midnight." 
A  dactyl  for  a  trochee  ;  as,  — 

^^  Many  a  gallant  gay  domestic." 
An  iambus  for  an  anapaest ;  as,  — 

"  King  Phil\\^  had  vauntled  his  claims." 


3l6  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Elision.  —  In  the  substitution  of  a  longer  foot  for  a  shorter,  the 
additional  syllables  are  sometimes  said  to  be  elided  or  slurred 
over.     It  is  better  to  regard  the  foot  as  substituted. 

At  the  End. — When  the  substitution  takes  place  at  the  end 
of  the  line,  special  names  have  unnecessarily  been  used.  If  a  line 
has  more  than  the  regular  number  of  syllables,  it  is  said  to  be 
hvpercatalectic ;  if  just  the  number,  acatakctic ;  if  less,  catalectic. 
Thus  :  — 

Hypercatalectic,  — 

"  If  the  pulse  |  of  the  patjriot  soWier  or  lov|er." 

Acatalectic,  — 

"  I  would  I  not  have  |  the  horse  |  I  drive 

So  fast  I  that  folks  |  must  stop  |  and  stare." 

Catalectic,  — 

"  Slaughtered  |  down  by  ]  heathen  |  blade." 

Incomplete  Feet.  —  Not  infrequently  the  unaccented  syllable 
or  syllables  are  omitted,  and  the  omission  supplied  by  a  pause. 
Thus  :  — 

"Break  ,  |  break  ,  |  breah 

\j     \j     \j  —         '^    — 

On  thy  cold  |  gray  stones,  |  O  sea." 


^    \j  \j 


"  Rashly  nn|portunate, 
Gone  to  her  |  death  ." 

Mixed  Verse.  —  It  is  usual  to  find  one  kind  of  feet  prevailing 
throughout  the  same  poem.  Sometimes,  however,  several  kinds 
are  employed  in  the  same  line  or  in  different  lines.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  in  the  ode,  in  songs,  in  tales,  and  in  romances. 

Emphasis  is  a  special  stress  of  the  voice  laid  on  a  word  to  give 
its  meaning  prominence.  If  the  metrical  accent  falls  on  an  unem- 
phatic  word,  a  harshness  is  produced  ;  as,  — 

"  And  a  small  seal,  her  mother's  legacy." 


VERSIFICATION.  317 

Quantity. — Though  Enghsh  metre  depends  on  accent,  yet 
quantity,  or  the  length  of  time  required  to  pronounce  a  syllable,  is 
not  without  its  effect  in  the  music  of  the  line.  One  or  more 
naturally  long  syllables  may  give  the  line  that  slowness,  solemnity, 
or  stateliness  of  movement  that  suits  the  subject.     Thus  :  — 

"And  breathless  darkness  and  the  narrow  house." 

"  The  vales 
Stretching  in  pensive  quietness  between." 

On  the  other  hand,  short,  light  syllables  make  the  rhythm  quick 
and  lively.     Thus  :  — 

"  Last,  came  Joy's  ecstatic  trial." 

"  First  to  the  lively  pipe  his  hand  addressed." 

Pauses.  —  Besides  the  pause  which  occurs  at  the  end  of  every 
line  of  poetry,  there  are  usually  one  or  more  pauses  in  the  body 
of  the  line.  The  chief  pause,  called  caesura,  may  fell  after  any 
syllable ;  but  seldom  at  the  same  place  in  any  two  contiguous 
lines.  The  minor  pauses,  called  semi-csesuras,  may  likewise  occur 
at  any  point  in  the  line.  Sometimes  several  pauses  of  equal  value 
are  found  in  tl  !g  same  verse. 

ExajHples :  — 

''The  lights  are  out,  ||  and  gone  |  are  all  the  guests, 
That  thronging  came  |  with  merriment  and  jests 

To  celebrate  |  the  Hanging  of  the  Crane 
In  the  new  house, —  ||  into  the  night  |  are  gone  ; 
But  still  I  the  fire  upon  the  hearth  j  burns  on, 

And  I  alone  |  remain." 

Rhyme. 

Rhyme  is  a  correspondence  of  sound.  Its  most  familiar  use  is 
at  the  end  of  the  line,  but  it  may  occur  at  various  points  within 
the  line. 


3l8  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

1.  A  similarity  of  sound  in  the  consonants  is  called  Alliterative 
Rhyme,  or  Alliteration.     It  may  occur  — 

a.  At  the  beginning  of  the  words  ;  as,  — 

"  As  ships  dnii  ^/arkling  dovm  the  tide." 

b.  At  the  end  of  the  word,  within  the  word,  or  within  one  word 

and  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  another  word  ;  as,  — 
"And  thist/es,  and  nett/es,  and  darne/s  rank." 

"  And  the  night  sha//  be  fi//ed  with  music." 
"Thus  we  waXk  with  her  and  >^eep  unbro-^en." 

c.  In  consecutive  lines  ;  as, — 

"  The  modest  stranger  lowly  bends. 
And  fo//ows  to  the  ce//." 
</.    The  alliterated  syllables  may  be  arranged  in  various  order ; 
as, — 

"An^/the  dock,  and  /zenbane,  and  hemlock  ^/ar/^." 

"  As  ^lood  to  the  /^eart  that  will  ^eat  no  more." 

"  But  who  would  ^oar  the  .yolar  //eight." 

"  And  J/ammon  a/ins  his  way  7£'here  Seraphs  ///>ght  despair." 

"  Sha//  fo/d  their  tents  /ike  the  Arabs." 

"  7y/e/ountain  o/ /ei^etua//eace/ows  ///ere." 

2.  A  correspondence  in  the  sound  of  the  vowels  at  the  close  of 
two  lines  is  called  Assonantal  Rhyme ;  as,  — 

"  It  fortifies  my  soul  to  ktww 
That,  though  I  perish,  truth  is  so." 

3.  Consonantal  Rhyme,  when  perfect,  has  the  following  condi- 
tions fulfilled  :  — 

a.  The  vowel  sounds  are  the  same. 

b.  The  consonants  after  the  vowels  are  similar  in  sound. 

c.  The  consonants  before  the  vowels  are  different  in  sound. 

d.  The  rhyming  syllables  are  similarly  accented. 


VERSIFICATION.  319 

Thus  song,  thong  ;  laid,  shade,  form  perfect  rhymes  ;  but  come, 
home,  are  imperfect. 

This  rhyme  usually  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  line,  and  is  for  that 
reason  called  Terminal ;  it  may,  however,  appear  within  the  line. 

Single  Rhyme  consists  of  one  rhyming  syllable,  as  sound,  found ; 
Double  Rhyme,  of  two,  as  shaken,  ivaken ;  Triple  Rhyme,  of 
three,  as  tenderly,  slenderly.  The  syllables  that  form  the  rhymes 
are  not  necessarily  contained  in  one  word. 

Blank  Verse  is  verse  without  rhyme.  It  is  generally  used  in 
dealing  with  lofty  and  dignified  subjects,  as  they  could  not  be  sub- 
jected to  the  cramping  restraint  of  rhyme. 

The  Stanza. 

A  Stanza  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  verses. 

1.  A  Distich,  or  Couplet,  contains  two  or  more  rhyming  lines. 

2.  A  Triplet  contains  three  lines  that  rhyme  together.  Exam- 
ple, Tennyson's  Eagle.     K  triplet  does  not  always  rhyme. 

3.  Quatrain  contains  four  verses ;  these  usually  rhyme  alter- 
nately. 

When  this  stanza  consists  of  four  iambic  pentameters  with  alter- 
nate rhyme,  it  is  called  Elegiac  Stanza ;  when  of  four  iambic 
tetrameters.  Long  Metre ;  when  of  four  iambic  trimeters,  with  an 
additional  foot  in  the  third  line,  Short  Metre  ;  when  of  four  iambic 
tetrameters  alternating  with  three,  Common  Metr?".     Thus  :  — 


\j  ^\\j  A^   A\^  ^  w  ^Iw  -Iw   A\j  ^  \j  A\j  ^\\j  A\j  - 

w  A^  ^\\j  -l\^  ^  Kj  ^\^  A\j  ^  V,'  A\j  Akj  ^ 

Common   Metre  is  called    also    Ballad  Metre,  from  its  being 
much  used  in  that  class  of  poetry. 

4.  The  stanza  of  five  lines  is  occasionally  used,  as  in  Shelley's 
Ode  to  a  Skylark. 

5.  Six-line  stanzas  are  much  niore  common,  as  in  Longfellow's 
The  Village  Blacks?nith. 


320  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

6.  The  seven-line  stanza  of  iambic  pentameter  bears  the  name 
of  Rhyme  Royal.  In  this  the  first  four  lines  form  an  alternately 
rhyming  quatrain,  the  fifth  line  rhymes  with  the  fourth,  and  the 
last  two  form  a  couplet. 

7.  The  eight-line  stanza  of  iambic  pentameter  is  the  famous 
ottava  rima.  Here  the  first  six  lines  rhyme  alternately,  and 
the  last  two  rhyme  together.  Byron's  Do7i  Juati  furnishes  an 
example. 

8.  The  Spenserian  stanza  consists  of  nine  lines  ;  the  first  eight 
are  iambic  pentameters,  and  the  ninth  an  Alexandrine.  The  first 
and  third  lines  rhyme  together ;  also  the  second,  fourth,  fifth,  and 
seventh,  as  well  as  the  sixth,  eighth,  and  ninth.  The  Faerie 
Qiieene,  The  Castle  of  Indolence,  and  Childe  Harold  are  in  this 
stanza.  The  Vision  of  Don  Roderick  affords  an  example  of 
different  rhyming. 

EXERCISE  XCVIII. 

Versification. 

1.  Explain  the  difference  between  metre  and  rhythm. 

2.  Explain  why  it  is  that  there  are  only  four  kinds  of  basal  feet 
in  English. 

3.  Distinguish  between  quantity  and  accent. 

4.  Name  and  describe  the  various  kinds  of  verse. 

5.  Name  and  illustrate  the  various  kinds  of  rhyme. 

6.  Explain  the  term  stanza,  and  quote  an  example  of  each  of 
the  different  kinds  of  stanza. 

7.  Explain  and  illustrate  each  of  the  following  terms  :  Verse, 
foot,  accent,  emphasis,  scansion,  blank  verse,  elision,  substituted 
feet,  incomplete  feet. 

8.  Arrange  the  following  in  four  iambic  tetrameters :  "  The 
bitter-sweet,  the  haunting  air  creepeth,  bloweth  everywnere ;  it 
preys  on  all,  all  prey  on  it,  blooms  in  beauty,  thinks  in  evil." 

9.  Arrange  in  three  iambic  pentameters  :  "  Seek  him  in  rising 
vapors,  and  in  clouds  of  crimson  or  dun,  and  often  on  the  edge 
of  the  gray  morning  and  of  tawny  eve." 


VERSIFICATION.  321 

10.  Arrange  in  five  trochaic  tetrameters  :  "  Round  about  him 
spun  the  landscape,  sky  and  forest  reeled  together,  and  his  strong 
heart  leaped  within  him,  as  the  sturgeon  leaps  and  struggles  in  a 
net  to  break  its  meshes." 

11.  Bring  in  four  hnes  of  each  of  the  following  metres,  with  the 
scansion  marked  :  Iambic  tetrameter,  iambic  hexameter ;  trochaic 
trimeter,  trochaic  pentameter;  dactylic  hexameter;  anapaestic 
tetrameter.     Point  out  clearly  any  variations  that  occur. 

12.  Arrange  in  two  trochaic  lines:  "Women,  I  am  but  a  girl, 
but  heroes'  blood  is  in  my  veins,  and  I  will  shed  it  drop  by  drop, 
before  I  see  my  land  in  chains." 

13.  Scan  12  in  another  measure. 

14.  Illustrate  the  effect  of  pauses. 

15.  Explain  what  you  understand  by  alliteration. 

16.  Quote  lines  that  show  various  methods  of  alhteration. 

17.  Quote  lines  in  which  you  consider  the  alliteration  excessive. 

18.  State  the  requirements  of  common  metre,  short  metre, 
long  metre,  elegiac  stanza. 

19.  Describe  rhyme  royal  and  Spenserian  stanza.  Name  poems 
in  these  measures. 

20.  What  is  blank  verse? 

21.  Arrange  in  six  iambic  lines,  making  the  third  and  sixth  lines 
trimeters  :  "  Faith  overleaps  the  confines  of  our  reason,  and  if  by 
faith,  as  in  old  times  was  said,  women  received  their  dead  raised 
up  to  life,  then  only  for  a  season  our  partings  are,  nor  shall  we 
wait  in  vain  until  we  meet  again." 

22.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  terms,  hypercatalectic,  acatalectic, 
and  catalectic. 

23.  Quote  a  line  to  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  unemphatic 
accent. 

24.  Arrange  in  iambic  lines  :  "  Time,  as  he  passes  us,  has  a 
dove's  wing,  unsoiled  and  swift  and  of  a  silken  sound.  But  the 
world's  time  is  time  in  masquerade." 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


CORRECTINC    COMPOSITIONS. 


The  labor  of  correcting  compositions,  especially  in  large  classes, 
is  very  great ;  yet  minute  correction  is  the  best  way  of  showing 
the  pupil  how  to  avoid  errors  and  attain  excellence.  General 
remarks  are  of  little  avail.  The  beauty  and  suitability  of  the 
various  parts  constitute  the  beauty  of  the  whole.  Hence  it  is 
necessary  to  call  the  learner's  attention  to  the  exact  points  in 
which  he  has  failed,  that  he  may  know  just  what  to  avoid  in 
future.  The  toil  of  criticising  may  be  lightened  by  using  a  system 
of  abbreviated  marks,  such  as  those  given  below.  (These  are 
taken  chiefly  from  Huffcut's  Eiig/ish  in  the  Prcparatojy  Schools.) 


0 

Orthography. 

S 

Change  construction. 

Cap 

Capitalization. 

Com 

Incompleteness  of  statement. 

P 

Punctuation. 

Tr 

Transpose. 

Clr 

Bad  grammar. 

Ob. 

Obscurity. 

W 

Wording. 

X 

Calls   attention    to   errors   not 

CI 

Want  of  clearness. 

specified. 

St 

Want  of  strength. 

Ac 

Want  of  accuracy. 

U 

Lack  of  unity. 

C 

Condense. 

11 

Inelegant. 

Cd 

Confused  statement. 

Cn 

Sentences  not  well  connected. 

D 

Strike  out. 

A 

Ambiguity. 

T 

Lack  of  taste. 

Ind. 

Indefinite. 

K 

Awkward  construction. 

Sim. 

Want  of  simplicity. 

Trt 

Trite. 

I.e. 

No  capital. 

Ex    - 

Expand. 

V 

Vague. 

t 

Paragraph  required. 

? 

Questions  the  truth  of  a  state- 

not 

No  paragraph  required. 

ment. 

Ms 

Manuscript  lacks  neatness. 

Inc 

Inconsequent. 

PROOF-READING    AND    MARKING. 


PROOF-READING   AND    MARKING.' 


Before  a  manuscript  is  brought  to  the  printer  it  ought  to  be  as 
perfect  as  the  author  can  make  it.  The  compositor  is  bound  to 
"follow  the  copy,"  in  word  and  sentiment,  unless,  indeed,  he 
meets  with  instances  of  wrong  punctuation  or  false  grammar  (and 
such  instances  are  not  rare),  which  his  intelligence  enables  him 
to  amend.  After  the  matter  has  been  read  and  corrected  in  the 
office,  a  proof  is  sent  to  the  author,  and  if  it  corresponds  with  the 
copy  the  compositor's  responsibility  is  at  an  end.  He  has  done 
all  he  is  paid  for  ;  and  should  the  author  desire  any  changes  made 
in  his  matter,  of  course  he  must  pay  for  them. 

Sentiments  in  print  look  marvellously  different  from  the  same 
ideas  in  manuscript ;  and  we  are  not  surprised  that  writers  should 
wish  to  polish  a  little ;  nor  do  we  object  to  their  natural  desire  of 
amending  or  beautifying  their  mental  products.  But  let  them  not 
forget  that  pay-time  will  come, — when  the  item  for  alterations  will 
loom  out  with  a  startling  distinctness  in  the  bill.  They  found  it 
easy  in  the  proof  to  erase  a  word  or  two  here  and  insert  a  word 
or  two  there,  without  dreaming,  perhaps,  that  in  consequence  of 
these  little  erasures  and  insertions  the  compositor  would  be  com- 
pelled to  alter  and  reconstruct  much  of  his  work.  We  know  of  a 
volume  on  which  the  alterations  alone  have  consumed  time  equal 
to  one  man's  work  for  nearly  two  and  a  half  years.  How  unrea- 
sonable —  nay,  how  transparently  unjust  —  the   expectation   that 

^  This  chapter  is  based  on  the  chapter  on  Proof-reading  in  "  The  American 
Printer,"  published  by  The  MacKellar,  Smiths,  ti  Jordan  Co.,  Philadelphia,  and  is 
used  by  their  permission. 


324  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

the  printer  should  give  gratuitously  the  time  and  trouble  requisite 
for  the  radical  changes  in  the  type  which  an  author's  whim  or 
taste  may  demand  ! 

An  authority  on  this  subject  says  :  "  It  may  not  be  improper,  in 
this  place,  just  to  take  notice  of  the  great  danger  to  the  correct- 
ness of  a  work  which  arises  from  the  practice,  too  common  with 
some  authors,  of  keeping  their  proof-sheets  too  long  in  their  hands 
before  J:hey  are  returned  to  the  printer.  The  impatience  of  authors 
to  see  their  works  in  a  fit  state  for  publication  is  almost  proverbial. 
The  pleasure  arising  from  beholding,  as  it  were,  the  '  form  and 
texture '  of  one's  thoughts  is  a  sensation  much  easier  felt  than 
described.  That  authors,  therefore,  may  partake  of  this  pleasure 
in  a  speedy  and  regular  succession,  they  should  make  a  point  of 
forwarding  their  proof-sheets  to  the  printer  as  quickly  as  possible, 
not  only  that  they  may  the  sooner  be  got  ready  for  the  press,  but 
that  the  work  may  proceed  in  a  regular  manner,  without  being 
interrupted  by  the  forwarding  of  other  works  in  lieu  of  theirs. 

"  Authors  are  very  apt  to  make  alterations,  and  to  correct  and 
amend  the  style  or  arguments  of  their  works,  when  they  first  see 
them  in  print.  This  is  certainly  the  worst  time  for  this  labor,  as 
it  is  necessarily  attended  with  an  expense  which,  ia  large  works, 
will  imperceptibly  swell  to  a  serious  sum  ;  when,  however,  this 
method  of  alteration  is  adopted  by  an  author,  the  reader  must 
always  be  careful  to  read  the  whole  sheet  over  once  more  with 
very  great  attention  before  it  is  finally  put  to  press. 

"  A  proof-sheet,  having  duly  undergone  this  routine  of  purga- 
tion, may  be  supposed  to  be  as  free  from  errata  as  the  nature  of 
the  thing  will  admit,  and  the  word  '  Press  '  may  be  written  at  the 
top  of  the  first  page  if  to  be  printed  from  type,  and  '  Casi'  if  to  be 
electrotyped.  These  are  important  words  to  every  proof-reader ; 
if  he  have  suffered  his  attention  to  be  drawn  aside  from  the  nature 
of  his  proper  business,  and  errors  should  be  discovered  when  it  is 
too  late  to  have  them  corrected,  these  words  are  as  the  signature 
of  the  death-warrant  of  his  reputation.  A  proof-reader,  therefore, 
should  be  a  man  of  one  business,  always  upon  the  alert,  all  eye, 


PROOF-READING    AND    MARKING.  325 

all  attention.  Possessing  a  becoming  reliance  on  his  own  powers, 
he  should  never  be  too  confident  of  success.  Imperfection  clings 
to  him  on  every  side.  Errors  and  mistakes  assail  him  from  every 
quarter.  His  business  is  of  a  nature  that  may  render  him  obnox- 
ious to  blame,  but  can  hardly  be  said  to  bring  him  in  any  very 
large  stock  of  praise.  If  errors  escape  him,  he  is  justly  to  be  cen- 
sured ;  for  perfection  is  his  duty.  If  his  labors  are  wholly  free 
from  mistake,  —  which  is,  alas  !  a  very  rare  case,  —  he  has  done 
no  more  than  he  ought,  and,  consequently,  can  merit  only  a  com- 
parative degree  of  commendation,  in  that  he  had  the  good  fortune 
to  be  more  successful  in  his  labors  after  perfection  than  some  of 
his  brethren  in  the  same  employment." 


326  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

'^  /  Though  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 
/the  individual  by  wWbm  the  art  of  printing  was    ^J 
first  discovered;    yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting    Peter  Schoeffer    to  be  the   person  ^ 
who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 
^    the  art  -ef  of  cutting  tiie  letters  from  the  Gu- 
!;/  tenbergs/  he    is   also   supposed    to  have   been 
*;J^    the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.     The'' j-j 
following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,  ^  ^l 
'  I'    by  l^Jo.  ^  Fred.  '"^Faustus,  ^^of  *  'Ascheffenburg : 
'°D  a'  P^ter    Schoeffer^  of    Gernsheim,    perceiving  ^^^^ 
"\y   his  master  Fausts  design,  and   being  himself 
"^  rdesirous  |  ardently]  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out    (by    the    good    providence  of  God)    the 
method   of   cutting  {incideftdi)   the  characters    ^^^• 
in  a  inatriA',  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 
^■>l  singly   castJ  instead   of    bieng   ct/f.      He    pri- "^_ 
'«J_   vately   cut  matrice^  for  tlie   whole   alphabet: 
Faust   was   so   pleased    with    the   contrivanc 
-^^at  he  promised  F'eter  to  give  him  \ngroniy  ^\ij/. 
^  "daughter    Christina    in    marriage.^a:   promise  3  /^    / 

which  he  soon  after  performed./^ 
^cidl       ^"^    there    were    manv/difficulties  at    first    ^^  '' 

with   these   letters,   as^/diere   had   been  before   '^^!^^^, 
^        with   wooden   oney  the  metal   being   too   soft  ^  /^     / 
to  support   th^Morce  of   the  im  pression :   but  ^^  -'"" 
this    defecr  was    soon    remedied,    by    mixing 
a  sul^gfance  with  the  metal  which  suflficiently    ^. 
5  0  haroened  it/ 

ceUeid  ccM^  Ao?u  ^A&:)e  9?^a,i^Uce^^ 


TYPOGRAPHICAL    MARKS    EXEMPLIFIED.  32/ 

Though  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 
the  individual  by  whom  the  art  of  printijig  was 
first  discovered ;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting  PETER  SCHOEFFER  to  be  the 
person  who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having 
learned  the  art  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the 
Gutenbergs :  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  who  engraved  on  copper-plates.  The 
following  testimony  is  preserved  in  the  family, 
by  Jo.  Fred.  Faustus,  of  Ascheffenburg : 

'  Peter  Schoeffer,  of  Gernsheim,  perceiv- 
ing his  master  Faust's  design,  and  being  him- 
self ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out  (by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the 
method  of  cutting  {incidencti)  the  characters  in 
a  fnatrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be  singly 
cast,  instead  of  being  cut.  He  privately  cut 
matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet :  and  when  he 
showed  his  master  the  letters  cast  from  these 
matrices,  Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the  con- 
trivance, that  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him 
his  only  daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a 
promise  which  he  soon  after  performed.  But 
there  were  as  many  difficulties  at  first  with 
these  letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with 
woode7t  ones,  the  metal  being  too  soft  to  sup- 
port the  force  of  the  impression  :  but  this  defect 
was  soon  remedied,  by  mixing  tlie  metal  with 
a  substance  which  sufficiently  hardened  it. ' 


328  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC- 


EXPLANATION    OF   THE    CORRECTIONS. 

A  wrong  letter  in  a  word  is  noted  by  drawing  a  short  perpendicular 
line  through  it,  and  making  another  short  line  in  the  margin,  behind 
which  the  right  letter  is  placed.  (See  No.  i.)  So  with  whole  words 
also,  a  line  being  drawn  across  the  wrong  word  and  the  right  one  writ- 
ten in  the  margin  opposite. 

A  turned  letter  is  noted  by  drawing  a  line  through  it,  and  writing  the 
mark  No.  2  in  the  margin. 

If  letters  or  words  require  to  be  altered  to  make  them  more  con- 
spicuous, a  parallel  line  or  lines  must  be  made  underneath  the  word  or 
letter,  —  viz.  for  capitals,  three  lines;  small  capitals,  two  lines;  and 
Italic,  one  line ;  and,  in  the  margin  opposite  the  line  where  the  altera- 
tion occurs,  Caps,  Small  Caps,  or  Ital.  must  be  written.     (See  No.  3.) 

When  letters  or  words  are  set  double,  or  are  required  to  be  taken  out, 
a  line  is  drawn  through  the  superfluous  word  or  letter,  and  the  mark 
No.  4  placed  opposite  in  the  margin. 

Whe|^  the  punctuation  requires  alteration,  the  correct  point  should 
be  written  in  the  margin.     (See  No.  5.) 

When  a  space  has  been  omitted  between  two  words,  a  caret  must  be 
made  where  the  separation  ought  to  be,  and  the  sign  No.  6  placed  oppo- 
site in  the  margin. 

When  a  word  should  form  a  compound  with  another,  it  is  denoted  as 
in  No.  7. 

When  a  letter  has  been  omitted,  a  caret  is  put  at  the  place  of  omis- 
sion, and  the  letter  marked  as  No.  8. 

Where  a  line  is  too  widely  spaced,  the  mark  No.  9  must  be  placed 
between  the  words  and  also  in  the  margin. 

Where  a  new  paragraph  is  required,  a  quadrangle  is  drawn  in  the 
margin,  and  a  caret  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  (See 
No.  10.) 

No.  II  shows  the  way  in  which  the  apostrophe,  inverted  commas, 
the  star  and  other  references,  and  superior  letters  and  figures,  are 
marked. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  CORRECTIONS.        329 

Where  two  words  are  transposed,  a  line  is  drawn  over  one  word  and 
below  the  other,  and  the  mark  No.  12  placed  in  the  margin;  but  where 
several  words  require  to  be  transposed,  their  right  order  is  signified  by 
a  figure  placed  over  each  word,  and  the  mark  No.  12  in  the  margin. 

Where  words  have  been  struck  out  that  have  afterward  been  approved 
of,  dots  should  be  marked  under  them,  and  stet  written  in  the  margin. 
(See  No.  13.) 

Where  a  space  sticks  up  between  two  words,  a  horizontal  line  is 
drawn  under  it,  and  the  mark  No.  14  placed  opposite,  in  the  margin. 

Where  several  words  have  been  left  out,  they  are  transcribed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  drawn  from  the  place  of  omission  to  the 
written  words  (see  No.  15);  but  if  the  omitted  matter  is  too  exten- 
sive to  be  copied  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  Out,  see  copy,  is  written  in  the 
margin,  and  the  missing  lines  are  enclosed  between  brackets,  and  the 
word  Out  is  inserted  in  the  margin  of  the  copy. 

Where  letters  stand  crooked,  they  are  noted  by  a  line  see  (No.  16) ; 
but,  where  a  page  hangs,  lines  are  drawn  across  the  entire  part  affected. 

When  a  smaller  or  larger  letter,  of  a  different  fount,  is  improperly 
introduced  into  the  page,  it  is  noted  by  the  mark  No.  17,  which  signi- 
fies wrong  fount. 

If  a  paragraph  is  improperly  made,  a  line  is  drawn  from  the  broken- 
off  matter  to  the  next  paragraph,  and  No  *{  written  in  the  margin. 
(See  No.  18.) 

Where  a  word  has  been  left  out  or  is  to  be  added,  a  caret  must  be 
made  in  the  jlace  where  it  should  come  in,  and  the  word  written  in  the 
margin.     (See  No.  19.) 

Where  a  faulty  letter  appears,  it  is  denoted  by  making  a  cross  under 
it,  and  placing  a  similar  mark  in  the  margin  (see  No.  20)  ;  though 
some  prefer  to  draw  a  perpendicular  line  through  it,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
wrong  letter. 

Where  a  word  has  been  accidentally  separated  by  a  space,  it  is  marked 
as  in  No.  21. 


INDEX, 


Apostrophe,  rules  for,  ;};}. 

exercise  on,  34. 
Auxiliaries,  55. 

Adjectives,  with  one  noun,  56. 
Adjectives  and  adverbs,  56. 
Adapt,  use  of,  63. 
Appreciate,  use  of,  64. 
Avocation,  use  of,  64. 
Alternative,  use  of,  64. 
Allow,  use  of,  64. 
Aggravate,  use  of,  65. 
At  length,  use  of,  65. 
Adjective  clause,  6. 

changed,  162. 
Adverbial  clause,  7. 
Arrangement, 

of  adverbs,  82. 

of  adverbial  phrases,  82. 

of  adverbial  clauses,  82. 

participial  clauses,  82. 

misleading  arrangement,  83. 

exercises  on,  84,  85,  86,  87. 

euphonious,  134. 

of  sentences  in  paragraph,  147. 

poetic.  189,  190. 
Anti-climax,  1 13. 
Alliteration,  194. 
Allegory,  210. 

rhetorical  value,  2IO. 

questions  on,  219. 
Apostrophe,  222. 

compared  with  personification,  222. 

rhetorical  value,  222. 


Antithesis,  defined,  226. 

rhetorical  value  of,  226. 

rule  of,  226. 

exercise  on,  228,  229. 
j'Esthetic  qualities,  255. 

exercise  on,  260,  262. 
Amplification,  271. 
Annals,  285. 
Argumentation,  298,  299. 

methods,  298. 

parts,  298. 

style,  298. 

theme,  298. 

exercise  on,  299. 
Addresses,  300. 
Accent,  314. 
Anapaestic  measure, 

examples  of,  314. 
Acatalectic  line,  ^16. 


Biography,  285. 


B. 


C. 


Composition,  defined,  I. 
Copula,  2. 
Complement, 

of  simple  predicate,  2. 

of  incomplete  verb,  2. 
Complex  sentence,  6. 

exercise  on,  7,  8. 
Clauses,  kinds,  6. 

substantive  clause,  6. 
what  it  may  be,  6. 


332 


INDEX. 


Clauses,  adjective  clause,  6. 
its  value,  6. 
how  attached,  6,  7. 

adverbial  clause,  7. 
its  value,  7. 
how  connected,  7. 
Compromise,  the,  12. 
Capitalization,  20,  21. 

exercises  on,  21,  22. 
Comma,  rules  for,  23-25,  31,  32,  34. 

exercises  on,  25,  26. 
Colon,  rules  for,  27. 

exercises  on,  28,  29. 
Caret,  rule  for,  33. 
Caption,  use  of,  63. 
Condign,  use  of,  64. 
Citizen,  use  of,  65. 
Continual,  synonym  of,  69. 
Crime,  synonym  of,  69. 
Courage,  synonym  of,  70. 
Conscious,  synonym  of,  70. 
Couple,  synonym  of,  70. 
Character,  synonym  of,  70. 
Clearness,  81-105. 

what  it  requires,  81. 

how  promoted,  81. 

from  reference  of  pronouns,  87. 

from  position  of  emphatic  words, 
92. 

lost  by  improper  ellipses,  97. 

lost  by  long  sentences,  98. 

general  exercise  on,  101-106. 
Comparative,  use  of,  56. 
Combining  sentence,  15. 
Compound  sentences, 

defined,  9. 

relation  of  parts,  9. 

exercise  on,  9,  10. 
Construction,  the  same,  93. 

exercises  on,  95-97. 
Closing,  how  done,  112. 
Climax,  112. 

Connection,  words  of,  116. 
Change  of  subject,  127. 
Continuity,  147. 


Continuity,  how  attained,  147, 

Connectives,  147. 

Change  of  order  of  words,  161. 

exercise  on,  162. 
Construction,  variety,  162,  163. 

exercises  on,  164-168. 

varied  by  combining,  contracting, 
expanding  sentences,   168,  170. 
Condensation,  defined,  178. 

exercise  on,  182,  183. 
Chronicles,  285. 
Criticisms,  295. 
Comedy,  308. 
Catalectic  line,  316. 
Correcting  composition,  322. 

proof,  324-327. 

D. 

Dash,  rules  for,  29,  30. 

exercise  on,  31,  32. 
Diction,  defined,  39. 

qualities  of,  39. 

general  exercise  on,  76-So. 

poetic,  189. 
Divided  usage,  41. 
Demean,  use  of,  64. 
Dock,  use  of,  65. 
Description,  use  of,  65. 
Distinguish,  synonym  of,  70. 
Deface,  synonym  of,  70. 
Dumb,  synonym  of,  70. 
Defect,  synonym  of,  70. 
Due  proportion,  149. 
Direct  discourse,  170. 

exercise  on,  175. 
Derision,  defined,  253. 
Discourse,  kinds  of,  284-310. 
Diary,  285. 
Description,  290. 

kinds  of,  290. 

principles  of,  290-293. 

style  of,  293. 

framework,  293,  294. 

exercise  on,  294, 


INDEX. 


333 


Drama,  the,  307,  308. 
Didactic  poetry,  309. 
Dactylic  measure, 

examples  of,  314. 
Distich,  319. 


.Exclamation  point,  rules  for,  32. 

exercise  on,  34. 
Expect,  use  of,  63. 
Eliminate,  use  of,  65. 
Extend,  use  of,  65. 
Excite,  synonym  of,  70. 
Ellipses,  improper,  97. 

exercise  on,  99,  100. 
Epithets,  prose,  107. 

poetic,  192. 
Exclamation,  121. 
Elegance,  defined,  133. 
how  attained,  133. 
by  melody  of  language,  133.. 
by  harmony,  135. 
by  avoiding  fine  writing,  138. 
by  keeping,  139. 
general  exercise  on,  143-145. 
Euphonious  words,  133. 
arrangement,  134. 
endings,  135. 
Euphoniousness,  194. 
Epigram,  defined,  227. 

relation  to  other  figures,  227. 
rhetorical  value  of,  227. 
exercise  on,  229. 
Euphemism,  defined,  227. 
rhetorical  value  of,  227. 
exercise  on,  229. 
Exposition,  295-297. 
divisions,  295. 
parts,  295. 
method,  296. 
style,  296. 
theme,  297. 
exercise  on,  297. 
Essay,  295. 
Editorials,  295. 


Epic  poetry,  306,  307. 

divisions,  306,  307. 
Elegy,  the,  308. 
Elision,  in  the  Une,  316. 

at  the  end,  316. 
Emphasis,  316. 


Foreign  words,  40. 
Female,  use  of,  64. 
Eaitlt,  synonym  of,  70. 
Fetver,  synonym  of,  70. 
Fetch,  synonym  of,  71. 
Formation  of  sentences,  81-145. 
general  exercise  on,  154-160. 
Forcible  words,  1 16. 

exercise  on,  11 7-1 19. 
Fine  writing,  1 38. 

exercise  on,  140,  141. 
Figurative  language,  195-197- 
Figures  of  speech,  206-233. 
defined,  206. 

value  and  use  of,  206,  207. 
kinds  of  figures,  207. 
general  exercise  on,  230-233. 
Force,  defined,  245. 
varieties  of,  245. 
requirements  of,  245-247. 
exercise  on,  248-251. 
Fable,  defined,  210. 
rhetorical  value,  210. 
questions  on,  219. 
Framework,  279. 
Fiction,  defined,  285. 

divisions,  286. 
Force,  308. 
Feet,  defined,  311. 
kinds  of,  312. 
substituted,  315. 
incomplete,  316. 


Good  usage,  39. 
how  to  find,  41. 


134 


INDEX. 


Grammatical  purity,  39,  41. 
Get,  use  of,  64. 
Grammar,  poetic,  191. 
Great  epic,  306. 

H. 

Hyphen,  rules  for,  33. 

exercise  on,  34. 
Healthy,  synonym  of,  70. 
Habit,  synonym  of,  70. 
Harmony,  135,  256. 

exercise  on,  136,  137. 

i^nitative,  195. 
Hyperbole,  defined,  222. 

exercise  on,  225,  226. 
Humor,  defined,  254. 
History,  284,  285. 

points  respecting,  287. 
Humanity,  305. 
Hypercatalectic  line,  316. 

I. 

Invention,  i. 

Interrogation  point,  rules  for,  32. 

exercise  on,  34. 
Impropriety,  63. 
Idioms,  116. 
Interrogation,  121. 
Indirect  discourse,  170. 

exercise  on,  175. 
Irony,  defined,  227. 

rhetorical  value  of,  227. 
Imagination,  305. 
Idylls,  307. 
Iambic  measure,  313. 

examples  of,  313. 
Index,  323,  331. 


J- 


Jests,  defined,  254. 

K. 

Keeping,  139,  140. 

exercise  on,  142,  143. 


Low  words,  40. 

Loose  sentences,  defined,  li. 

exercise  on,  13-15- 
Less,  synonym  of,  70. 
Lone,  synonym  of,  71. 
Long  sentences  mav  lead  to  obscurity, 
98. 

exercise  on,  100,  loi. 
Ludicrous,  the,  defined,  253. 

kinds  of,  253. 

exercise  on,  257-259. 
Letters,  263-269. 

kinds,  263. 

form,  263. 

heading,  263. 

address,  264. 

body  of,  264. 

conclusion,  265. 

superscription,  265. 

style  of,  266. 

business,  267. 

examples  of,  267,  269. 

exercise  on,  269. 
Lecture,  301. 
Lyric  poetry,  308,  309. 

M. 
Minor  points,  of  syntax,  55,  56. 

exercise  on,  56,  57. 
Moods,  syntax  of,  52. 
Mistaken,  use  of,  65. 
Mattners,  synonym  of,  71. 
Melody,  133,  255. 

exercise  on,  136,  137. 
Methods  of  transposing  poetrv,   184- 

187. 
Measure,  186. 
Metaphor,  208-210. 

defined,  208. 

compared  with  simile,  208. 

rhetorical  value  of,  208,  209. 

rules  for,  209. 

expanded,  209-210. 

exercises  on,  212-218. 


INDEX. 


335 


Metonymy,  defined,  220. 

kinds  of,  220. 

rhetorical  value  of,  220. 

exercise  on,  222,  224. 
Mock-heroic,  255. 
Memoirs,  285. 
Metrical  romance,  306,  307. 
Mixed  epic,  307. 
Mask,  the,  308. 
Melodrama,  308. 
Metre,  31 1-3 17. 

long,  short,  common,  319. 

N. 

New  words,  40. 
Nouns,  syntax  of,  45. 
Nouns,  exercise  on,  47. 
Nice,  use  of,  65. 
Neglect,  synonym  of,  69. 
Number  of  words,  106. 

exercise  on,  1 08- no. 
Narration,  284-291. 

kinds  of,  284-286. 

style  of,  287,  288. 

parts,  288. 

framework,  288. 

practice  in,  288-290. 

exercise  in,  290. 
News,  285. 
Novel,  kinds,  286. 

principles  of,  286,  287. 

O. 

Obsolete  words,  40. 
Order  of  words,  in. 

exercise  on,  113-115. 
Oratory,  300. 
Orations,  300. 
Opera,  an,  308. 
Odes,  308. 


Parable,  defined,  210. 
questions  on,  219. 


Perspicuity,  234-237. 

defined,  234. 

how  gained,  234-237. 

exercise  on,  239-243. 
Picturesqueness,  237-239. 

defined,  237. 

on  what  it  depends,  237-239. 

exercise  on,  239-243. 
Pathos,  defined,  247. 

how  awakened,  247. 

to  what  it  applies,  247. 

how  increased,  247,  248. 

exercise  on,  248-251. 
Parody,  255. 

plan,  the,  270-284. 

practice  in  composition,  273-284. 
Persuasion,  300-303. 

ends,  300. 

classification,  300,  301. 

means  of,  301. 

style,  301. 

theme,  302. 

exercise,  303. 
Pastorals,  307. 
Poetry,  304-310. 
Pauses,  317. 

Proof,  correcting,  324,  327. 
Predicate,  what  it  consists  of,  3. 

its  modifiers,  3. 

position  of,  92. 

varying  of,  168. 

exercise  on,  170. 
Punctuation,  23-36. 

general  exercise  on,  35-37. 
Period,  rules  for,  30. 

exercise  on,  31,  32. 
Parentheses,  rules  for,  33. 

exercise  on,  34. 
Purity,  rhetorical,  what  it  consists  in,  39. 

standard  of,  39. 

errors  in,  39. 

exercises  on,  42-44. 
Purity,  grammatical,  45. 

of  nouns  and  pronouns,  45. 

of  pronouns,  46,  47. 


336 


INDEX. 


Purity,  grammatical,  exercise   on,  47, 
48. 

of  verbs,  agreement,  49. 
Periodic  sentences,  delined,  11. 

exercise  on,  13-15. 
Pleonasm,  107. 
Proverbs,  116. 
Parentheses,  128. 
Paragraphs,  construction  of,  146-154. 

exercise  on,  1 51-154. 

writing  of,  273-27S. 
Parallel  construction,  150. 
Phrases  or  clauses, 

adjectival,  changed,  162,  163. 

exercise  on,  164,  165. 

adverbial,  changed,  163. 

exercise  on,  165,  166. 

noun,  changed,  163. 

exercise  on,  167,  168. 
Pronouns,  syntax  of,  46. 

exercise  on,  47,  48. 
Past  tense  and  past  participle,  56. 
Propriety,  63. 

defined,  63. 

importance  of,  63. 

examples  of,  63-66. 

exercise  on,  66-68. 
Predicate,  use  of,  63. 
Pell-mell,  use  of,  64. 
Plenty,  use  of,  65. 
Precision,  defined,  68. 

examples  of,  68-71. 

how  attained,  69. 

exercise  on,  72-75. 
Pronouns,  reference  to  antecedents,  87. 
relative  pronouns,  use  of,  88. 

exercise  on  reference  of,  89-92. 
Phraseology,  176. 
Paraphrase,  directions,  172,  178. 

exercise  on,  182. 

poetry,  184-205. 

how  done,  184,  185. 

exercise  on,  188,  189,  197-205. 
Poetry,  how  differs    from    prose,  186, 
197.  304- 


Poetry,  its  materials,  304,  305. 

its  method  of  treatment,  305,  306. 

its  divisions,  306-309. 

questions  on,  309,  310. 
Picturesqueness,  poetry,  190-193. 
Poetic  epithets,  192. 

words,  193,  194. 

description,  293. 
Personification,  defined,  210,  211. 

rhetorical  value  of,  211. 

exercise  on,  218,  219. 

Q- 

Qualifiers  of  the  subject,  2. 
Quotation  marks,  rules  for,  32,  t^t,. 

exercise  on,  34. 
Quite,  use  of,  64. 
Quotations,  116. 
Qualities  of  style,  234. 

defined,  234. 

classified,  234. 
Quantity,  317. 
Quatrain,  319. 

R. 

Reviews,  295. 
Rhetoric,  defined,  i. 
Resolving  sentences,  17,  18. 
Rhetorical  purity,  39. 
Restive,  use  of,  64. 
Rendition,  use  of,  64. 
Replace,  use  of,  65. 
Remember,  synonym  of,  69. 
Redundancy,  defined,  107. 

when  permissible,  107. 
Rhyme,  186. 

kinds  of,  317-319. 
Rhetorical  analysis,  243,  252. 
Reproduction,  244,  252,  253. 
Ridicule,  defined,  253. 

rendered  effective  by,  254. 
Raillery,  defined,  253. 

rendered  effective  by,  254. 
Romance,  286. 
Rhythm,  311. 


INDEX, 


337 


s. 


Style,  I. 

Sentence,  grammatical  classification,  i . 
kinds  of,  i. 
simple  sentence,  i. 
subjects  of,  2. 
its  qualifiers,  2. 
exercise  on,  4,  5. 
combined,  contracted,  and    ex- 
panded, 168,  169. 
exercise  on,  171,  173. 
complex  sentences,  6. 
its  clauses,  6. 
exercise  on,  7,  8. 
contracted,  170. 
exercise  on,  174,  175. 
compound  sentences,  9. 
what  they  consist  of,  9. 
relation    between    parts,     how- 
made,  9. 
what  members  are,  9. 
one    member    may   be   abbre- 
viated, 9. 
exercise  on,  9,  10. 
contracted,  170. 
exercise  on,  173,  174. 
Sentence,  rhetorical,  11. 
classification,  li. 
kinds  of  rhetorical  sentences,  II. 
periodic  sentence,  11. 
loose  sentence,  11. 
compromise  sentence,  12. 
balanced  sentence,  12. 
defined,  12. 
exercise  on,  19. 
short  sentences  defined,  12. 
long  sentences,  12. 
topic  sentence,  146. 
Semi-colon,  rules  for,  26,  27. 

•exercise  on,  28,  29. 
Style,  defined,  ;}$. 
its  elements,  38. 
its  importance,  38. 
means  of  attaining,  38. 


Style,  its  qualities,  234, 
Social  meanings,  41. 
Slang,  41. 
Solecism,  41. 
Subjunctive  mood,  52. 
Short  sentences,  12. 

exercise  on,  15,  16. 
Subject,  position  of,  92. 
Strength,  defined,  106. 

where  desirable,  106. 

how  promoted,  106. 

from  number  of  words,  106. 

from  order  of  words,  111-113. 

from  forcible  words,  1 16,  117. 

from  variety,  120,  121. 

general  exercise  on,  124-127. 
Suspense,  1 1 2. 
Supplementary  clauses,  129. 
Synonyms,  176. 

exercise  on,  179. 
Syntax, 

of  nouns  and  pronouns,  45-47. 

of  verbs,  49-52. 

of  moods,  52. 

of  tense,  52,  53. 

of  auxiliaries,  55. 

of  minor  points,  55,  56. 

general  exercise  on,  58-62. 
Simile,  the,  defined,  207. 

rules  for,  208. 

rhetorical  value  of,  20S. 

exercises  on,  211,  212,  217. 
Synecdoche,  defined,  221. 

rhetorical  value  of,  221. 

compared     with     metonymy    and 
metaphor,  221. 

exercise  on,  224-226. 
Satire,  defined,  253. 

rendered  effective  by,  254. 
Sarcasm,  defined,  253. 

rendered  effective  by,  254. 
Speeches,  300. 
Sermons,  301. 
Songs,  308. 
Sonnet,  the,  309. 


338 


INDEX. 


Simple  lyric,  309. 
Satiric  poetry,  309. 
Scanning,  detined,  315. 
Stanza,  the,  defined,  319. 

elegiac,  319. 

of  five  lines,  of  six  lines,  319. 

of  seven  lines,  of  eight,  320. 

Spenserian,  320. 

T. 

Tenses,  52,  53. 
This  and  that,  55. 
To,  of  the  iniinitive,  56. 
Trajispire,  use  of,  65. 
To  a  degree,  use  of,  65. 
Tru/h,  synonym  of,  70. 
Tautology,  defined,  107. 

when  permissible,  107. 
Transition,  1 16. 
Things  unconnected,  128. 
Topic  sentence,  146, 
Transposing,  prose,  177. 

exercise  on,  180,  181. 

poetry,  184,  205. 

exercises    on,    188,    189,    197- 
205. 
Terms,  concrete,  specific,  194. 
Travesty,  255. 
Taste,  defined,  256. 
Themes,  general,  270-273. 
Theme,  a,  278-284. 
Travels,  285. 
Tale,  the,  307. 
Tragedy,  the,  307. 
Trochaic  measure,  examples  of,  314. 
Triplet,  319. 


U. 


Utter,  synonym  of,  69. 
Unity,  defined,  127. 
how  attained,  127. 


Unity,  exercise  on,  130- 1 32. 
of  paragraph,  149. 


Verbs,  agreement,  49,  50. 

exercise  on,  51. 

moods,  tenses,  52,  53. 

exercise  on,  53,  54. 

auxiliaries,  55. 
Visitor,  synonym  of,  69. 
Variety,  strength  from,  120,  121. 

exercise  on,  1 21-123. 

in  paragraphs,  150. 
Vision,  121,  207. 
Variety  of  expression,  160-205. 

of  prose,  160-183. 

of  poetry,  183-205. 

explanation,  160. 

kinds,  how  attained,  160. 

of  construction,  162. 
how  secured,  162. 

poetry  to  prose,  184. 
methods,  184-187. 
Vituperation,  defined,  253. 

rendered  effective  by,  254. 
Versification,  311-321. 

its  parts,  321. 

exercise  on,  320,  321. 
Verse,  a,  defined,  312. 

kinds  of,  312. 

mixed,  316. 

W. 

Witness,  use  of,  64. 
Words  to  use  for  clearness,  81. 
placing  of,  83. 
exercise  on,  83,  84. 
emphatic,  place  of,  92,  93,  in. 
exercise  on,  94,  95. 
number  of,  106. 
Wit,  defined,  254. 
consists  in,  254. 


English. 

Suggestive  Lessons  in  Language. 

By  Anna  B.  Badlam,  Principal  of  Lewiston  Practice  School,  Maine;  formerly  ot 
the  Rice  Training  School,  Boston.  Leatherette.  104  pages.   Retail  price,  50  cents. 

THIS  book  includes  outline  lessons  for  oral  work,  specimens  of 
stories  told  by  children  who  had  had  the  work,  a  collection  of 
simple  fables  for  reproduction  by  the  pupil,  and  a  series  of  miscel- 
laneous exercises  in  oral  language. 

It  forms  an  excellent  introduction  to  Ihuie^s  First  Book  (see  below) 

Practical  Lessons    in    the   Use  of  RnglisJi. 

For  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools.  By  Mary  F.  Hyde,  Teacher  of  Compo- 
sition in  the  State  Normal  School,  Albany,  N.  V.  First  Book.  For  Primary 
and  Intermediate  Schools.  Cloth.  152  pages.  Price  by  mail,  40  cents.  In- 
troduction price,  35  cents.  Second  Book,  with  supplement,  for  Grammar 
grades.     362  pages.     Price  by  mail,  70  cents.     Introduction  price,  60  cents. 

The  Second  Book  may  be  had  with  "  Advanced  Lessons  "  (see  paa;e  52)  bound 
with  it.     438  pages.     Introduction  price,  70  cents.     Price  by  mail,  So  cents. 

THESE  books  are  designed  to  give  the  pupil  practical  aid  in 
speaking  and  in  writing  English.  The  First  Book  contains 
such  exercises  as  are  needed  by  pupils  when  they  begin  to  write 
English.  It  includes  graded  lessons  in  the  forms  and  uses  of  words 
and  sentences,  dictation  exercises,  reproduction  exercises,  picture 
lessons,  choice  selections  for  memorizing,  practice  in  letter-writing, 
etc. 

The  Second  Book  is  intended  for  pupils  in  grammar  schools.  It 
covers  such  technical  grammar  as  is  essential  to  a  correct  use  of  the 
language,  gives  many  selections  for  study  from  the  best  writers,  the 
most  common  uses  of  capital  letters  and  of  marks  of  punctuation, 
practical  exercises  in  composition,  and  special  instruction  in  writing 
letters,  invitations,  advertisements,  public  notices,  etc. 

The  Supplement  provides  for  a  thorough  review  of  all  the  gram- 
matical principles  taught  in  the  preceding  parts  and  also  for  a  more 
extended  application  of  those  princijiles.  [See  next pagt. 

50 


52  ENGLISH. 

Advanced  Lessons  in  English. 

By  Mary  F.  Hyde,  formerly  Teacher  of  Composition  in  the  State  Normal 
School,  Albany,  N.  Y.  Cloth.  210  pages.  Introduction  price,  50  cents.  Price 
by  mail,  55  cents.  This  book  may  be  had  bound  with  Second  Book  (see  page 
50).     438  pages.     Introduction  price,  70  cents.     Price  by  mail,  80  cents. 

THIS  book  is  designed  for  advanced  classes  in  grammar  schools,  or 
for  pupils  in  high  schools,  academies,  or  ungraded  schools,  who 
desire  a  brief,  practical,  progressive  course  in  English  Grammar. 

The  -special  aim  of  the  book  is  to  give  the  pupil  a  mastery  of  the 
leading  grammatical  principles.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  mul- 
tiply exceptional  points,  but  rather  to  incite  the  pupil  to  observe  and 
apply  essential  facts. 

The  work  does  not  consist  of  a  mere  statement  of  abstract  defini- 
tions and  rules.  Examples  of  good  English  from  standard  writers  are 
given  in  connection  with  every  principle  stated,  and  the  pupil  is  led  to 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  leading  grammatical  forms  and  construc- 
tions, through  the  study  of  these  examples. 

It  contains  a  progressive  series  of  oral  and  written  exercises,  which 
test  and  fix  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  principles  studied,  and  give 
him  readiness  and  skill  in  the  use  of  language.  These  exercises  are 
adapted,  — 

1.  To  give  the  pupil  such  a  mastery  of  the  parts  of  speech,  that  he 
will  recognize  readily  the  office  of  each  word  in  any  ordinary  sentence. 

2.  To  give  him  a  practical  knowledge  of  grammatical  forms. 

3.  To  make  him  familiar  with  the  leading  constructions  in  English. 

4.  To  make  him  familiar  with  the  leading  grammatical  terms. 

5.  To  give  him  a  firm  grasp  of  the  leading  grammatical  principles. 

6.  To  give  him  the  ability  to  analyze  any  ordinary  sentence. 

7.  To  give  him  the  ability  to  comprehend  readily  and  fully  the 
meaning  of  a  writer  or  speaker. 

8.  To  aid  him  in  expressing  his  own  thoughts  intelligently  and  ac- 
curately. 

9.  To  help  him  to  gain  knowledge  by  his  own  efforts. 

10.    To  furnish  him  the  best  possible  preparation  for  higher  English 
studies  or  for  the  study  of  other  languages. 


ENGLISH. 


53 


English  Grammar. 


Outlines  of  English  Gram>nar  with  Continuous  Selections  for  Practice.  By 
Harriet  Mathews,  Teacher  of  English  Grammar  in  the  State  Normal  School, 
Trenton,  N.  J.  Cloth.  266  pages.  Introduction  price,  70  cents.  Price  by- 
mail,  80  cents. 

THIS  book  is  designed  to  furnish  a  full  course  in  English  grammar 
for  all  classes  except  those  pursuing  special  advanced  work.  The 
book  is  devoted  to  grammatical  work  and  presents  the  subject  in  con- 
nection with  choice  selections  and  extracts  as  well  as  selected  sen- 
tences. The  aim  of  the  work  is  to  teach  from  the  materials  of  the 
English  language  the  principles  of  its  grammar  as  a  science. 


J.  M.  Green,  Prin.  State  Normal 
School,  Trenton,  N./.:  It  is  niy  opinion 
that  this  grammar  has  gone  a  long  way 
toward  advancing  "  the  learning  of  Eng- 
lish by  using  it  "  in  the  proper  sense.  I 
have  seen  the  book  used  in  both  normal 
and  public  schools  with  very  satisfactory 
results. 

Louis  F.  Galbraith,  State  Normal 
School,  Winona,  Minn. :  Its  new  fea- 
tures are  pedagogically  attractive  and 
sound.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  on 
the  right  line. 

Bertha  Bass,  State  Normal  School, 
Providence,  R.  I. :  The  book  ought  to 
teach  the  beauties  as  well  as  the  uses  of 
English. 

Sarah  Alice  Gliaan,  State  Normal 

School,  Greely,  Colo. :  An  elevated  and 
refined  sentiment  pervades  the  extracts, 
thus  an  ethical  element  is  added  to  the 
utilitarian  one.  It  seems  well  adapted  to 
its  purpose  of  leading  children  to  compre- 
hend and  use  the  mother-tongue. 

Mrs.  Ida  Wall  Lewis,  State  Nor- 
mal School,  Ypsilanti,  Michigan:  Miss 
Matthews  has  seen  exactly  what  was 
needed,  and  her  gmmmar  is  admirably 
designed  to  supply  that  need.  I  found  it 
superior  in  plan  to  any  other  which  I  ever 
examined. 


Isabel  W.  Pierce,  State  Normal 
School,  Chico,  Cat. :  It  has  embodied  the 
right  plan  of  teaching  grammar. 

Elias  Fraunfelter,  Suft.  Public 
Schools,  Akron,  O.:  It  is  certainly  a  very 
excellent  work.  The  method  followed  by 
the  author  has  been  used  in  these  schools 
since  last  September,  and  the  result 
secured  is  very  satisfactory  indeed. 

Oscar  S.  Burdlck,  Henry  School, 
Stamford,  Ct. :  I  am  much  pleased  with 
the  plan  of  the  book  as  well  as  with  its 
execution.  The  idea  of  continuous  selec- 
tions for  use  in  class  I  consider  a  most 
excellent  one,  and  the  author  has  certainly 
displayed  good  judgment  in  her  choice  of 
those  to  be  used.  I  trust  it  may  meet 
with  that  hearty  reception  from  school 
officers  and  teachers  which  it  certainly  de- 
serves. 

London  Literary  World  :  So  far 
as  our  knowledge  extends,  the  book  is 
among  the  best  of  its  kind.  The  prin- 
ciple the  author  starts  from,  like  all  her 
principles,  is  simple,  and  not  more  simple 
than  sound,  both  logically  and  psychologi- 
cally. 

Public  School  Journal,  ///.  •  It 
would  be  a  great  boon  to  children  if  this 
book  could  be  widely  introduced  into  the 
schools. 


56  ENGLISH. 

The  English  Language. 

Its  Grammar,  History,  and  Literature,  with  chapters  on  Composition,  Versifica- 
tion, Paraphrasing,  and  Punctuation.  By  J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohn,  Professor  of 
Pedagogy  in  the  University  of  St.  Andrews,  Scotland.  Cloth.  396  pages. 
Price  by  mail,  ^1.30.     Introduction  price  reduced  from  Jsi.30  to  $\.zo^ 

''T^HIS  book,  which  treats  of  the  Grammar,  History  and  Literature 
J-  of  the  English  Language,  is  distinguished  throughout  by  clear, 
brief  and  comprehensive  statement  and  illustration.  Insignificant  de- 
tails are  omitted,  but  all  salient  features  are  treated  with  the  utmost 
clearness.  A  complete  index  is  added  for  convenience  of  reference. 
It  is  especially  suitable  for  classes  needing  a  scholarly,  yet  clear  and 
interesting  summary,  and  for  teachers  who  want  a  brief  text  for  their 
own  instruction.  It  is  a  compact  and  reliable  statement  of  all  the 
essentials  of  the  subject.  \_See  tJiefollozvitig. 

English  Grammar. 

Parts  I  and  11  of  "  The  English  Language"  (described  above).  By  J.  M.  D. 
Meiklejohn,  Professor  in  the  University  of  .St.  Andrews,  .Scotland.  Cloth. 
236  pages.     Price  by  mail,  90  cents.     Introduction  price,  So  cents. 

PART  I  contains  a  concise  and  accurate  7-hume  oi  the  principles 
and  rules  of  English  Grammar,  with  some  interesting  chapters 
on  word-building  and  derivation,  including  a  historical  dictionary  of 
roots  and  branches  of  words  derived  from  names  of  persons  or  of 
places,  and  of  words  disguised  in  form,  and  words  greatly  changed  in 
meaning. 

Part  II  contains  30  pages  of  practical  instruction  in  Composition, 
Paraphrasing,  Versification  and  Punctuation.  The  book  concludes 
with  36  pages  of  exercises  on  Part  I.  It  is  suited  to  Academies,  High 
Schools  and  Colleges. 

Examination  Papers  covering  this  book  are  published  in  conven- 
ient form  for  cutting  up  and  distributing  among  the  pupils.  Price,  10 
cents. 

English  Literature. 

Parts  III  and  IV  of  "  The  English  Language  "  (described  above).  ByJ.M.D. 
Meiklejohn,  Professor  in  the  University  of  St.  Andrews,  Scotland.  Cloth. 
194  pages.     Price  by  mail,  85  cents.     Introduction  price,  80  cents. 

ART.S  III   and  IV  of  "  The  English  Language  "  which  comprise 
this  book  are  described  in  full  on  the  next  page. 


P 


62 


ENGLISH 


Exercises  in  English. 


Selected  and  classified  for  criticism  or  correction.  By  H.  I.  Strang,  Head 
Master  Goderich  High  School,  Ontario.  (Revised,  with  additions,  by  G.R.  Car- 
penter, Associate  Professor  of  English  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology.) Cloth.  146  pages.  Introduction  price,  45  cents.  Price  by  mail,  50 
cents. 

MANY  pupils  who  have  a  ready  command  of  grammatical  rules  and 
definitions,  and  who  are  fairly  proficient  in  analysis  and  parsing, 
are  yet  seemingly  unable  to  detect  common  and  undoubted  errors  in 
sentences  of  their  own  writing.  Accustomed  as  the  majority  of  our 
pupils  are  from  childhood  to  hearing  incorrect  forms  of  speech  used  by 
those  around  them,  special  and  systematic  drill  is  necessary  to  teach 
them  to  notice  and  guard  against  these  wrong  forms  ;  and  this  drill 
should  be  oral  as  well  as  written,  in  order  that  both  the  ear  and  the  eye 
may  be  enlisted  in  the  cause  of  good  English,  and  trained  to  assist  the 
student. 

This  book  is  an  attempt  not  only  to  supply  exactly  this  necessary 
drill  for  students  who  pursue  their  studies  no  further  than  the  High 
School,  but  to  provide  ample  and  adequate  drill  for  the  very  large  class 
of  pupils  who  are  preparing  for  college.  At  almost  all  the  New  Eng- 
land colleges  and  scientific  schools,  and  in  certain  others  of  the  Middle 
and  Western  States  as  well,  the  candidate  is  required  "  fa  correct 
specimens  of  bad  English. ^^  It  is  to  meet  the  requirements  of  this  im- 
portant examination  that  this  book  has  been  recentiv  carefully  adapted 
by  the  addition  of  considerable  matter  in  the  body  of  the  book  and  of 
an  appendix  containing  eighteen  typical  college  examinations. 

Onr  special  circular  on  this  book  glides  abundant  e^oidence  of  its 
nscf Illness  for  school  and  college  and  for  all  interested  in  careful  ivrit- 
ing.      We  quote  a  few  opinions :  — 


James  R.  Truax,  Prof,  of  Rkct., 
Eng  Lang,  and  Lit.,  Union  Coll.,  N.  Y. : 
An  eminently  sensible  mode  of  teaching 
a  vital  subject.  It  should  be  honored  by 
extensive  use  in  the  schools. 

Melville  B.  Anderson,  Prof,  nf 
Eng.,  Leland  Stanford  Univ.:  It  is 
admirable,  and  I  hope  to  find  use  for  it 
with  my  Freshmen. 


Geo.  E.  MacLean,  Prof,  of  Eng.. 

Univ.  of  Minn. :  Admirably  selected  and 
arranged.  Should  be  used  in  every  Higli 
School,  to  supplement  the  grammar  and 
composition. 

J.  A.  Tufts,  Teacher  of  Englisli, 
Pliilips  Exeter  Academy :  I  have  found 
it  valuable  in  preparing  boys  for  college. 
As  revised  it  is  vastly  improved. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

Hawthorne  and  Lemmon's  American  Literature.     A  manual  for  high  schools 

and  academies.     #1.25. 

Meiklejohn's  History  of  English  Language  and  Literature.    For  high  schools 

and  colleges.  A  compact  and  reliable  statement  of  the  essentials  ;  also  included  in 
Meiklejohn's  English  Language  (see  under  English  Language),     go  cts. 

Meiklejohn's  History  of  English  Literature.     ii6  pages.     Part  iv  of  English 

Literature,  above.     45  cts. 

Hodgkins'  Studies  in  English  Literature.     Gives  full  lists  of  aids  for  laboratory 

method.  Scott,  Lamb,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats,  Macaulay> 
Dickens,  Thackeray,  Robert  Browning,  Mrs.  Browning,  Carlyle,  George  Eliot,  Tenny- 
son, Rossetti,  Arnold,  Ruskin,  Irving,  Bryant,  Hawthorne,  Longfellow,  Emerson, 
Whittier,  Holmes,  and  Lowell.  A  separate  riamphlet  on  each  author.  Price  5  cts.  each, 
or  per  hundred,  5300;  complete  in  cloth  (adjustable  file  cover,  $1.50).     {Si. 00. 

Scudder's   Shelley's  Prometheus   Unbound.      With  introduction  and  copious 

notes.     70  cts. 

George's  Wordsworth's  Prelude.      Annotated   for    high  school  and  college.     Never 
before  published  alone.     .5(1.25. 

George's  Selections  from  Wordsworth.    i68  poems  chosen  with  a  view  to  illustrate 

the  growth  of  the  poet's  mind  and  art.     $1.50. 

George's  Wordsworth's  Prefaces  and  Essays  on  Poetry.     Contains  the  best  of 

Wordsworth's  prose.     60  cts. 
George's  Webster's  Speeches.      Nine  select  speeches  with  notes.     $1.50. 

George's  Burke's  American  Orations.     Cloth.    65  cts. 

George's  Syllabus  of  English  Literature  and  History,     siiows  in  parallel 

columns,  the  progress  of  History  and  Literature.     20  cts. 

Corson's  Introduction  to  Browning.      a  guide  to  the  study  of  Browning's  Poetry. 
Also  has  33  poems  with  notes.     $1.50. 

Corson's   Introduction  to  the  Study  of   Shakespeare.     A  critical  study  of 

Shakespeare's  art,  with  examination  questions.     #1.50. 

Corson's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Milton,    in  press. 
Corson's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Chaucer,     in  press. 

Cook's  Judith.      The  Old  English  epic  poem,  with  introduction,  translation,  glossary  and 
fac-simile  page.     $1.60.     Students'  edition  without  translation.     35  cts. 

Cook's  The  Bible  and  English  Prose  Style.  Approaches  the  study  of  the  Bible 

from  the  literary  side.     60  cts. 

Simonds'  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  and  his  Poems.     i6s  pages.    With  biography,  and 

critical  analysis  of  his  poems.     75  cts. 

Hall's  Beowulf.      A  metrical  translation.     Jf i.oo.      Students'  edition.     35  cts. 

Norton's  Heart  of  Oak  Books.      A  series   of  five  volumes  giving  selections  from  the 
choicest  English  literature. 

Phillips's  History  and  Literature  in  Grammar  Grades.     An  essay  showing  the 

intimate  relation  of  the  two  subjects.     15  cts. 

See  also  our  list  of  books  /or  the  study  0/  tlie  English  Language. 


D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 
r.OS  AKOttLlB.  -•-  '•' 


CTAffl  ^   "^^  00672  "ol 
STATE  WUKiaAL  i-UllUUL, 


f  V-^    >  NTr<.trf 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


'i^H^^BIl!JM«*l 


iatiiimiik 


